Report

In the New Testament (NT) a curious phenomenon emerges: the absence of an earthly Jesus in Paul’s correspondence. Even more noteworthy is the fact that Paul is not forced by the first apostles, including the disciples and relatives of Jesus, to rely on eyewitness testimony.
In the Gospels Simon “Peter” (Aramaic: “Cephas”) first confesses Jesus to be the Messiah (Anointed [of God], Greek “Christ”) and is made Jesus’ deputy:
Paul evidently refers to Peter/Cephas as a “pillar” of the early church, alongside James and John (cf. Matthew 10:2, Mark 1:19, Luke 6:4, and Acts 2:12):
Paul further mentions him as Jesus’ first eyewitness, but only after the latter’s ‘resurrection’ (Paul strangely excludes Jesus’ ministry):
Oddly, Paul seems to imply that the apostles, among whom he includes himself, only saw Jesus after his ‘resurrection’:
Paul even claims that “the gospel” was only revealed to him:
Now the Galatians might have regarded human testimony and/or traditional authority as paramount. If so, they would have deferred to the “pillars” and/or their emissaries. But had these known an earthly Jesus, Paul’s argumentation would not have worked, for then the Galatians would have cited either Jesus himself or eyewitnesses, including relatives. Yet Paul evidently treats the Galatians as valuing visions more than forms of testimony. Had he thought otherwise, he might have refrained from mentioning his lack of contact with other apostles:
That Paul does not address eyewitness testimony or is even forced to do so is remarkable. To illustrate, one can imagine an exchange:
Galatians: “Your ‘gospel’ is manmade, whereas we have the testimony of Jesus’ companions”
Paul: “I am not lying, for I did not receive my ‘gospel’ by means of men, but revelation”
If the Galatians were arguing thusly, why would Paul appeal to revelation?
The Galatians could always rely on Jesus and his disciples. One might argue that Paul deliberately omitted Jesus’ ministry, knowing his weakness. He might have known that he would lose his case by a) giving equal weight to revelation and/or b) claiming to be an eyewitness. But if true, a) would nullify Paul’s line of argumentation in Galatians; the latter also rules out b), given that Paul, in his own words, does not rely on testimony either.
So, based on the evidence, one is left with the following:
Paul says Jesus was only seen after his ‘death’, e.g., in 1 Corinthians 9:1, 15:5–8; and Galatians 1:1–24. Neither Paul nor his foes, including the very first apostles, relied on eyewitness testimony. Paul is not compelled to do so in his epistles; neither do his opponents insist that he do. The Galatians themselves did not use eyewitness testimony, as Paul’s case shows. Paul assumes he had the same access to ‘Jesus’ as the first apostles (revelation). Given the author of this blog‘s own belief in a historical Jesus, all this awaits a plausible explanation.

This post was stimulated by the election of Donald Trump and his view that claims of climate change are exaggerated and his promise to the electorate that he'd resume coal mining.
When uranium was first discovered people believed that the world's supplies would only last until the new century (2000), but since then new discoveries keep being made. Uranium will likely last a very long time and for more than long enough for us to develop alternative and safer and cleaner means of energy generation. In the meantime uranium has also been responsible for enabling is to learn a great deal about atomic physics, which we otherwise would not have done and which has perhaps been a stepping stone towards acquiring knowledge about energy production which would have been difficult to acquire without having the lessons provided by uranium-powered nuclear reactors.
The central idea underlying the God hypothesis was that evidence of intelligent design lies in our having had the right proportions of fuels to last us while we developed the intellectual capability so as to be able to develop the next, more sophisticated source of power.
Intelligent design also means that the system within which we live can take into account our weaknesses. So people who worry about climate change, fear that continued reliance on fossil fuels will likely mean that man-made temperature rises will lead to long-term habitat destruction.
So this story could go either one of two ways. Either we take into account the warnings of those worried by man-made climate change and mend our ways, or we suffer the consequences.
If the God hypothesis holds, however, no matter what we do we'll survive. The hypothesis holds that whoever put us here put in sufficient resources for us to stay around for a lot longer and go further than we have done.
I think the outcomes are more subtle than that. The God hypothesis will also hold true if the people who deny climate change persist with their use of old technologies and in so doing hand over technological and economic leadership to those people who have the vision to change. I think this has been the story of humankind. One of the reasons why the West gained its supremacy over other countries and cultures was its earlier understanding of the power of hydrocarbons and the ways that they could be used to power a multitude of machines.
Similarly, post-carbon fuel sources will require the development of a range of different technologies and the countries that are faster to adopt will gain leadership advantages.
The God hypothesis also holds that due to God's mercy we are aware of the dangers of different types of fuel. The famous London smog and the measurable levels of particulates in many of today's cities are a testimony to people becoming aware of the dangers of hydro-carbons, irrespective of the climate change problem. These natural signals are there to be heeded and again, the countries and people who do so, will be the ones who will benefit the most.
The case of the Easter Islanders is worth bearing in mind. They had developed a belief system which involved cutting down the trees on Easter Island to construct and move their Moai. Ultimately their beliefs meant that there were no trees left and the island was no longer habitable. Holding the wrong beliefs led to their destruction, but not of that of the wider planet. In a similar way, I think climate change deniers are harming no one else but themselves. True climate change operates at the level of the planet, but I think here are enough people willing to take heed so as to mitigate its worst effects, while at the same time undermining the legitimacy of the deniers.
https://contemporaniablog.wordpress.com/2016/11/18/god-hypothesis-ii/

Summary
Over the past decades I had observed reference to the word penniless when the UK media referred to Indian migrants who came to the UK in the 1970s. The anomaly was the fact that in subsequent years I had seen their increasing purchase of retail stores (often corner shops and pharmacies) in Britain. How can penniless people get into businesses that require capital?
First off some evidence for the penniless trope:
 
Now the ChatGPT analysis
 

Why the “penniless” story took hold
Material losses were real and easily visible. Idi Amin allowed each departing Ugandan Asian to take only the equivalent of about £50–£120 in cash and one suitcase; more than 5,600 firms, farms and homes were confiscated en.wikipedia.org. The UK tabloids and ministers therefore greeted the first charter flights in September 1972 with photographs of bewildered families clutching a few bags. Those images became the master-narrative picked up in subsequent scholarship and the media.
The label also served political purposes. Portraying the arrivals as destitute refugees helped the Heath government win public support for the Uganda Resettlement Board and for access to welfare benefits lordslibrary.parliament.uk. At the same time, it masked anxieties in parts of White Britain about receiving another non-European group (a point Ram & Jones later called the “politics of disguise” in South-Asian business debates) tandfonline.com.
How retail entrepreneurship became possible in spite of that start
Pre-migration human and cultural capital
East-African Asians were an archetypal “middleman-minority”: more than 90 % had worked in trade, accountancy or light industry before 1972, often in family firms en.wikipedia.org.
Long commercial apprenticeships, multilingual ability and kin-based management routines transferred intact to Britain and dramatically shortened their learning curve once a market niche (convenience retail) emerged. Portes, Robson & Yusuf’s 2021 cohort analysis in Journal of Refugee Studies shows that by 2011 East-African Asians had occupational distributions equal to—or better than—the UK-born population lordslibrary.parliament.uk.
Hidden or delayed-access financial capital
Channel Mechanism Typical time-lag Overseas bank deposits Many Gujarati merchants kept sterling balances in London and India to pay suppliers; funds became accessible once new accounts were opened in the UK. 6-24 months Compensation & insurance British diplomats negotiated partial compensation for expropriated assets (Hansard, 12 Mar 1975) hansard.parliament.uk. 3-5 years Property collateral Families that purchased modest terraced houses in the mid-1970s used rising equity as collateral for shop mortgages in the 1980s. 5-10 years Ethnic community finance
Rotating Savings and Credit Associations—known to Gujaratis as committee or visis—re-emerged in Leicester, Wembley and Southall almost immediately. A recent Elsevier scoping review confirms that ROSCAs remain widespread among Asian diasporas in high-income countries and routinely supply lump sums of £5–15 k for micro-enterprise starts sciencedirect.com.
Because participation is reputation-based, newcomers could mobilise capital without conventional collateral—something mainstream banks denied to many immigrants in the 1970s.
Family labour and sweat equity
Convenience stores, newsagents and petrol-station kiosks demanded long hours more than large fixed investments. As Basu’s survey of 163 London immigrant firms shows, Asian businesses substituted unpaid family labour for scarce cash during the start-up phase researchgate.net.
Push and pull from the wider economy
Discrimination in salaried employment nudged professionally-qualified refugees toward self-employment (Ram’s “blocked mobility” thesis, Ethnic and Racial Studies) tandfonline.com.
At the same time, Britain’s small-shop sector was being vacated by retiring native owners as supermarkets expanded. Buying leaseholds or goodwill for corner shops often cost < £10 k in 1975 prices—an attainable target through the mechanisms above.
Reconciling the two pictures
The newcomers were genuinely cash-poor on arrival, but they were not capital-less. Their stock of human, social and transnational financial capital—plus an institutional repertoire (ROSCA, family firm, rotating kin credit)—allowed them to assemble the modest funds retailing required within a few months or years. The “penniless” trope persisted because it captured first impressions and suited government messaging, whereas the slower, largely invisible mobilisation of diasporic resources unfolded off-stage in kitchens, temples and community halls.
In migration research terms, the case is a textbook illustration of “migrant capital”—the idea that mobility converts pre-migration resources into new economic value (Ryan, Erel & D’Angelo, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies) research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk. Far from contradicting the initial narrative, their later retail success simply shows how quickly intangible assets can be monetised when opportunity structures permit.
 
 

Introduction
There is a school of thought that argues that British colonial policy favoured some subjects rather than others. This was to advantage Britain and disadvantage the colonies. This had an impact on the colonies even after the end of the Empire even after its dissolution.
 
 

 

 



 

Same methodology as before, but more specific prompts on my part - and better answers
 
Summary
An important motivation for exploring this topic was my previous blog post about Prophet Yusuf's ((عليه السلام).) policy options. The overall theme of that post was the role of the State (Egyptian) that would intervene in the national grain market on the advice of Prophet Yusuf ((عليه السلام).). That was an example of how (in my opinion) Islam presented a non-market based solution to an external shock. This might not be well received in circles that favour 'private enterprise'.
My proposition is that Prophet Nuh's ((عليه السلام).) story, on the other hand, deals with a type of individual that free marketers and capitalists etc. hold as a hero of the economic system - the entrepreneur. However he's a specific type of entrepreneur since he was not driven by the profit motive, but he's an entrepreneur nevertheless. In this post I substantiate that proposition. This post refines some of the issues initially explored in V1. This is still work in progress and the references to the Qur'an that gpt4 makes need to be researched.
The stories of the two Prophets I think are interesting insofar as they show solutions to external shocks (famine and flood) being provided by Prophets and those solutions have similarities with economic philosophies that are today considered to be ideological opposites. That opposition perhaps reflects a weakness on the part of modern thinking.
My prompts in bold and gpt4's answers in plain text.
Imagine you are a scholar of Islam with an interest in management. How could the story of Noah in the Qur'an be seen through the lens of social entrepreneurship?
Social entrepreneurship is about recognizing societal problems and using entrepreneurial principles to create, organize, and manage ventures to bring about social change. In the context of the story of Noah (Nuh in Arabic) as it is told in the Qur'an, we can extract various lessons related to social entrepreneurship.
Vision and Determination: Noah had a clear vision and was determined to build an ark despite the ridicule of his people. This reflects the characteristics of a social entrepreneur who has a clear vision for a social change and is persistent despite challenges and criticism. Resourcefulness and Innovation: Noah was not a shipbuilder, yet he was tasked with building an ark to withstand a great flood. He had to be resourceful and innovative in his approach, just like a social entrepreneur who often has to work with limited resources and come up with innovative solutions to societal problems. Leadership and Teamwork: Noah had to lead and manage his family and the animals on the ark. He needed to ensure everyone's survival during the flood. This highlights the need for strong leadership and team management skills in social entrepreneurship. Resilience and Patience: Noah faced a lot of opposition from his people. Despite this, he remained patient and resilient, demonstrating the ability to withstand a lot of negative pressure. This mirrors the challenges faced by social entrepreneurs who often need to maintain their resilience and patience in the face of obstacles and opposition. Social Impact: Ultimately, Noah's mission was about saving mankind and animals from a catastrophic event. This aligns with the ultimate goal of social entrepreneurship, which is to create a positive social impact. It's important to note that religious texts like the Qur'an are interpreted differently by different people, and the above is one possible interpretation. These lessons extracted from the story of Noah can be used as a source of inspiration and guidance for social entrepreneurs.
Thank you. Noah was not selling anything for money. How could his enterprise be viewed in terms of exchange theory?
Exchange theory, which has roots in economics, sociology, and psychology, is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. It posits that human behavior is driven by the exchange of rewards, both tangible and intangible.
In the context of Noah's story from the Qur'an, the 'enterprise' he was undertaking was not a typical business venture aimed at monetary gain. Instead, it was a mission with a spiritual and moral goal, to save humanity and the animal kingdom from divine retribution. The exchange happening here was not of goods, services, or currencies, but rather of faith, obedience, and survival.
Noah, as a Prophet, was tasked to communicate God's message to his people. He 'offered' salvation and divine mercy in exchange for faith and righteous behavior. Those who accepted his message and acted accordingly were 'rewarded' with survival in the face of the cataclysmic flood.
This kind of exchange—where the 'goods' are intangible and the 'currency' is faith, trust, and obedience—is not typical in the world of business, but it is common in religious and spiritual contexts. It also exists in social entrepreneurship to some extent, where the 'reward' for supporting a cause may be an intangible sense of satisfaction, community belonging, or moral fulfillment.
In this interpretation, the 'profit' Noah was seeking was not material wealth, but the salvation of his followers. Similarly, the 'profit' for a social entrepreneur may not always be monetary but can be the social impact and positive change that they are able to bring about.
Again, it's important to remember that this is just one interpretation of the story. Different people may have different perspectives based on their personal beliefs, values, and experiences.
Please elaborate on Noah's entrepreneurial role as a risk-taker.
An entrepreneur, by nature, is a risk-taker, and social entrepreneurs are no exception. They are willing to take on significant risks to bring about positive social change, often venturing into uncharted territories and challenging the status quo.
In the story of Noah from the Qur'an, Noah can be seen as a significant risk-taker in the following ways:
Challenging the Status Quo: Noah challenged the prevailing norms and beliefs of his society by preaching monotheism in a largely idolatrous community. This was a significant risk as it made him a target of ridicule, rejection, and even threats to his safety. Long-Term Commitment Despite Uncertain Outcomes: Noah was tasked with building an ark—a monumental task—despite the lack of any immediate signs of a flood. This uncertainty could be likened to the risks that entrepreneurs take, as they often invest considerable resources in projects without a guaranteed outcome. Stakeholder Resistance: Noah faced significant opposition from his own community, including from some of his own family members. This resistance is similar to the pushback social entrepreneurs often face from various stakeholders who are resistant to change. Resource Allocation: Building an ark required significant resources, both in terms of time and materials. Allocating these resources for a purpose that many deemed pointless was a significant risk. Similarly, social entrepreneurs often have to make tough decisions about resource allocation with no guarantee of success. Personal Risks: In addition to the societal risks, Noah also undertook personal risks. His unwavering commitment to his mission resulted in personal loss, including the loss of some family members who didn't believe in his message. This is akin to the personal sacrifices and risks many entrepreneurs take on—financial, emotional, and physical—in pursuit of their vision. In all these ways, Noah embodies the risk-taking nature of an entrepreneur, demonstrating the courage, resilience, and determination that are key characteristics of successful entrepreneurship.
As a social entrepreneur, Noah was both taking risks in his enterprise and expecting others to take risks as well. For what reasons would his potential stakeholders be willing to take those risks?
In the context of the story of Noah from the Qur'an, potential stakeholders—those who listened to Noah's message and chose to support his mission—were expected to take significant risks. Here are some potential reasons they might be willing to take those risks:
Belief in the Vision: The stakeholders who joined Noah likely believed in his vision of monotheism and the impending divine punishment. Much like stakeholders in a social enterprise, they were likely moved by his message and felt that the cause was worth the risk. Trust in the Leader: The stakeholders likely trusted Noah as a leader, believing that he was divinely guided and would lead them to safety. This level of trust is also crucial in social entrepreneurship, where stakeholders need to trust that the entrepreneur will use their resources wisely and effectively to achieve the desired social impact. Desire for Salvation: The primary 'reward' that Noah's followers sought was divine mercy and salvation. This was a powerful motivator for them to take the risk and join him on the ark. Sense of Moral Duty: Some of Noah's stakeholders might have felt a moral obligation to support his cause and stand against the prevailing societal norms of idol worship. Community and Belonging: By joining Noah, the stakeholders became part of a community of believers. This sense of belonging and community can be a strong motivator, especially in times of adversity. In social entrepreneurship, stakeholders often take risks for similar reasons. They believe in the entrepreneur's vision, trust in their leadership, desire to contribute to a positive social change, and find value in being part of a community that shares their values and goals.
Is there any evidence in the Qur'an that Noah was a trustworthy man?
Yes, the Qur'an does present Noah as a trustworthy and righteous man. The Qur'an refers to Noah as a Prophet, which in Islamic belief denotes someone chosen by God to deliver His message to the people. Prophets in Islam are seen as models of moral and ethical conduct.
In the Qur'an, Noah is described as a grateful servant of God (Surah Al-Isra, 17:3) and a messenger who was inspired by God (Surah Al-Shu'ara, 26:105). His dedication to the task given to him by God, despite immense ridicule and opposition from his people, further underscores his trustworthiness and commitment.
Moreover, the Qur'an describes Noah as patient and steadfast in the face of adversity. In Surah Hud (11:36), God tells Noah that no one else will believe in his message beyond those who already have, suggesting that Noah had done his utmost to convince his people. Noah's response to this divine decree, and his continued dedication to his mission, further underscores his trustworthiness.
It's important to note that the depiction of Noah as a trustworthy figure is based on the Islamic belief system, which sees the Qur'an as the word of God and Noah as a prophet. Different people may interpret these texts in different ways, depending on their cultural, historical, and personal contexts.
Your last response has made some useful references to specific Qur'anic ayats. Can you please substantiate the previous points you have made in his conversation with reference to specific ayats?
Absolutely, I'd be happy to provide references from the Qur'an that can support the points we've discussed in this conversation about Noah's role as a social entrepreneur. Here are a few examples:
Vision and Determination: Noah's vision and determination can be seen in Surah Hud (11:36-37), where God instructs Noah to build the Ark under His guidance and in His vision. Despite the ridicule of his people, Noah remains determined and committed to his task. Resourcefulness and Innovation: Surah Hud (11:37) also speaks to Noah's resourcefulness and innovation. Despite not being a shipbuilder, he is able to construct an ark capable of surviving the flood. This required significant innovation and resourcefulness. Leadership and Teamwork: Noah's leadership is apparent in his efforts to gather his followers and the animals onto the Ark, as described in Surah Hud (11:40). Resilience and Patience: Noah's patience and resilience can be seen in Surah Nuh (71:5-6), where he mentions calling out to his people day and night without them increasing but in flight. Despite his people's rejection, Noah continues his mission with patience. Social Impact: The ultimate goal of Noah's mission was to save his followers from the impending divine punishment. This is clear in Surah Al-A'raf (7:64), which mentions that Noah was able to save a group of believers. Risk-Taking: Noah's risk-taking is evident in Surah Hud (11:38), where it is mentioned that he began constructing the ark and whenever the chieftains of his people passed by him, they ridiculed him. Despite the ridicule and societal pressure, Noah took the risk and continued with his mission. The above references are translations and interpretations from the Qur'an and reflect the points discussed in the context of social entrepreneurship. The interpretations of these verses can vary among different scholars and readers.

Summary
This post and the replies to it explore the notion of measurement in the Qur'an and the range of meanings that it conveys, from the mundane to the more esoteric and divine. These posts then focus on the association between measurement and precision in the Qur'an and how intertwined the two concepts are. Given that improvements in precision are associated with technological development - it is hypothesised that the latter could be considered a 'good' thing.
Introduction
A previous blog post, that I had written by myself) on this subject disappeared after it was posted. So here is another attempt, but this time I have resorted to posting a conversation with GPT4, pursuing lines of thought that had motivated the previous post. So usual caveats apply i.e. the references it gives etc. do need to be checked for accuracy.
 
Please give some examples of the usage of the word 'measure' as used in English translations of the Qur'an.
Sure, I can provide some examples from well-known English translations of the Qur'an that feature the concept of 'measure'. However, please remember that translations can vary based on the translator's understanding and interpretation. Here are a few examples:
In the context of divine creation: In Surah Al-Furqan (25:2), the concept of 'measure' is used to describe the precision and orderliness of God's creation: "He to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and who has not taken a son and has not had a partner in dominion and has created each thing and determined it with [precise] determination." In the context of sustenance and livelihood: In Surah Al-Isra (17:30), it is said that God provides for whom He wills in measured amounts: "Indeed, your Lord extends provision for whom He wills and restricts [it]. Indeed He is ever, concerning His servants, Acquainted and Seeing." In the context of time and life: In Surah Al-Insan (76:3), the term 'measure' is used to refer to the predetermined life span of every individual: "Indeed, We created man from a sperm-drop mixture that We may try him; and We made him hearing and seeing." In the context of moral and ethical standards: In Surah Al-Mutaffifin (83:1-3), those who give less than due when they measure or weigh for people are condemned: "Woe to those who give less [than due], Who, when they take a measure from people, take in full. But if they give by measure or by weight to them, they cause loss." These are just a few examples to illustrate how the concept of 'measure' is used in the Qur'an. It's a multi-faceted term with different implications depending on the context.
 
Please expand on the references to the notion of measurement when applied to moral and ethical standards.
The Qur'an, as the central religious text of Islam, contains numerous references to moral and ethical standards. These standards are often articulated in terms of measures, weights, balances, scales, or equivalents, metaphors that imply fairness, justice, and equity.
Here are some instances where the notion of measurement is applied to moral and ethical standards:
Fair dealings and honesty in transactions: In Surah Al-Mutaffifin (83:1-3), it is emphasized that people should be fair and honest in their transactions. The word 'measure' is used metaphorically to represent the moral standard for economic transactions. Those who cheat or give less than due when they measure or weigh for others are condemned. The recompense of deeds: The metaphor of scales or balance is often used in the context of judgment in the Hereafter. In Surah Al-Qari'ah (101:6-9), it is mentioned that on the Day of Judgement, people's deeds will be weighed, and those whose scale of good deeds is heavy will be successful, while those whose scale is light will have lost their souls. Here, 'measure' is used to metaphorically represent the weight of a person's good and bad deeds. Justice: Justice is a key value in Islamic ethics. The Qur'an urges believers to uphold justice, even against themselves or their kin. In Surah An-Nisa (4:135), it states, "O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice, witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives." Here, the notion of 'measure' is inherent in the concept of justice, implying fairness and impartiality. Equitable treatment and reciprocity: In Surah Al-Baqarah (2:279), the Qur'an provides guidance about dealing with debts and emphasizes the importance of writing down the amount borrowed to ensure fairness and prevent disputes. This is a metaphorical use of 'measure', representing clear and fair dealings in social and economic transactions. These examples demonstrate how the Qur'an uses the concept of 'measure' to prescribe moral and ethical standards for individuals and societies. The consistent theme is a call for fairness, justice, and honesty in all dealings.
 
Please expand on the issue of measurement where the references are to do with fair dealings and honesty in transactions.
In the Qur'an, the concept of fair dealings and honesty, especially in business transactions, is heavily emphasized. The term 'measure' is often used as a metaphor to reinforce this principle. Here are some key examples:
Surah Al-Mutaffifin (Defrauding; 83:1-3): "Woe to those who give less [than due], who when they take a measure from people, take in full. But if they give by measure or by weight to them, they cause loss." These verses clearly condemn dishonest business practices, specifically those involving shortchanging or defrauding others in measurements or weights.  Surah Al-An'am (The Cattle; 6:152): "And give full measure when you measure, and weigh with an even balance. That is the best [way] and best in result." This verse underscores the importance of giving full measure and maintaining a balanced weight, both literally in commerce and metaphorically in all dealings. Surah Al-Isra (The Night Journey; 17:35): "And give full measure when you measure, and weigh with an even balance. That is the best [way] and best in result." This verse is a near-repetition of the one in Surah Al-An'am, further emphasizing the importance of honest measurements and dealings. Surah Hud (11:84-85): "And O my people, give full measure and weight in justice and do not deprive the people of their due and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption." These verses were spoken by the prophet Shu'aib, admonishing his people to act justly in their business transactions and warning them against spreading corruption. These verses underscore the Qur'anic emphasis on integrity, honesty, and fairness in business transactions. From a broader perspective, these principles can be seen as fundamental to the Islamic concept of 'Adl (justice) and Ihsan (doing what is good and right). This includes upholding trust (Amanah), being truthful (Sidq), and avoiding deceit and corruption. Such principles are seen as crucial for maintaining social harmony and economic justice in society.
 
You used the word metaphorically in your last answer. Can you please expand on the notion of how measurement refers in the Qur'an on a more metaphorical basis in the context of dealings?
In the Qur'an, the concept of measurement is often used metaphorically to convey deeper moral and ethical lessons. When applied to the context of dealings, especially in business transactions, the 'measure' becomes a symbol of integrity, fairness, and justice. 
Symbol of integrity: When the Qur'an instructs to give full measure, it's not just about the literal physical measure in transactions, but also about being fully truthful and transparent in all aspects of life. For example, when you promise something, you should fulfill it completely, not partially or deceitfully. Indicator of fairness: The measure in the Qur'an often symbolizes fairness. When it instructs to give full measure, it's urging fairness not just in transactions, but in all interactions with others. This includes treating others with respect, not taking advantage of others, and giving everyone their due rights. Representation of justice: The Qur'anic emphasis on accurate measurement can be seen as a metaphor for justice. Just as you wouldn't want to be cheated out of a full measure in a transaction, you should not cheat others out of their rights. This concept extends to social justice, implying that everyone should get their fair share of society's resources and opportunities. A signifier of balance: The Qur'an often pairs the concept of measure with balance, especially in the context of dealings. This can be interpreted metaphorically as a call for balance in all aspects of life, including personal conduct, social relationships, and economic activities. This balance is crucial in maintaining harmony and preventing exploitation or excess. These metaphorical interpretations of 'measure' highlight the depth of Qur'anic teachings, where simple instructions carry profound moral and ethical implications. It's a reminder that the principles of integrity, fairness, justice, and balance should permeate every aspect of a person's life, from business transactions to personal relationships and societal interactions.
 
Can you give references to any commentators who have written about these metaphorical uses of measurement in the Qur'an, quotations from their works would be useful.
Islamic scholars and commentators have indeed explored the metaphorical aspects of the Qur'an's teachings on measurement, particularly in the context of ethics, justice, and societal dealings. While I don't have direct quotations available, I can provide an overview of these interpretations based on various well-known exegeses (Tafsir). 
Tafsir Ibn Kathir: Ibn Kathir, a renowned medieval scholar, in his commentary on Surah Al-Mutaffifin (Defrauding; 83:1-3), explains the metaphor of measurement in terms of fairness and honesty in transactions, and extends this to mean fairness and honesty in all aspects of life. Tafsir Al-Jalalayn: The two Jalals, Jalaluddin Al-Mahalli and Jalaluddin As-Suyuti, in their Tafsir Al-Jalalayn, provide succinct interpretations of the Qur'an. Regarding verses about measurement, they stress the importance of justice and integrity, interpreting these metaphors in both a literal and ethical sense. Tafsir Al-Tabari: Al-Tabari, a prominent early Islamic scholar, interpreted the verses related to 'measure' as moral and ethical guidelines applicable to all aspects of life, not just business transactions. His interpretation also highlights the repercussions of dishonesty and deceit. Tafsir Al-Qurtubi: Al-Qurtubi, known for his emphasis on the practical and legal implications of the Qur'an, interpreted the verses about measurement and balance as guidelines for just dealings and the establishment of a fair society. For direct quotations and a more in-depth understanding, I would recommend consulting the mentioned Tafsirs or commentaries. They are widely available in various languages, including English. 
Remember, interpretation of religious texts can be complex and subjective, and different scholars may have different interpretations of the same verses. For a nuanced understanding, it's important to consider the historical context, the entirety of the Qur'an, Hadiths (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), and scholarly interpretations.

Summary
There are a lot of attempts to link Qur'anic insights with the physical sciences. There's less in the area of the social sciences. For this post, I conversed with GPT4 about some semantic field analysis related to trust references in the Qur'an.
Then I asked it to compare these to the work of the German sociologist Niklas Luhmann. The purpose of the latter exercise was not to 'validate' the Qur'an as some analyses of its references to the physical sciences attempt to do, but rather to better understand the nature of the guidance that it offers using a contemporary perspective.
This is GPT4's summary of the analysis:
In summary, integrating the concepts from the three roots with Luhmann's understanding of trust showcases the multifaceted nature of trust in both the Qur'anic worldview and modern sociological thought. While the contexts and specifics differ, the essential role of trust in simplifying complexity, facilitating action, and managing risk and uncertainty remains a consistent theme.
This post starts with the semantic field analysis of roots related to trust in the Qur'an and then I examine the comparisons with Luhmann. Semantic field maps were used by Izutsu in his original exposition of the idea and I have used the ChatGPT Diagram plug-in to create these where relevant.
As in previous posts using GPT my prompts are in bold red text, the AI's answers are in black. The very last prompt indicates that there is some analysis I asked it to do  but which I have not posted here, that's just to avoid repetition.
Background to Luhmann
This is what GPT4 says about him and his work.
Niklas Luhmann, a renowned sociologist, delved into the concept of trust within the framework of his systems theory. For Luhmann, modern societies are characterized by their complexity, and trust becomes a mechanism to reduce this complexity. His ideas on trust were primarily articulated in his 1968 book "Trust and Power."
1. Reduction of Complexity: Trust allows individuals to act without continually verifying every piece of information or every implication of their actions. By trusting, we can avoid paralysis in the face of overwhelming complexity.
2. Risk: Trust inherently carries with it the risk of betrayal or disappointment. Trusting someone or something is a leap of faith that exposes one to potential negative outcomes.
3. Facilitator of Action: Trust propels action. When individuals trust institutions, people, or systems, they can act without seeking exhaustive information or guarantees.
4. Systemic Function: Trust is crucial for the functioning of various societal systems, be it economic, political, or social. Without trust, these systems would become cumbersome and inefficient.
5. Contingency: Trust operates in the realm of the future and the unknown. It helps individuals navigate uncertainty by providing a semblance of predictability.
 
Can you please do a semantic field analysis of the root w-k-l in the Qur'an?
Certainly. Let's delve into a semantic field analysis of the root "و-ك-ل" (w-k-l):
1. Occurrences and Forms:
   - "وكيل" (wakīl): Usually translated as "guardian" or "trustee" or "disposer of affairs."
   - "توكل" (tawakkul): Trusting, relying upon, or putting one's affairs in the hands of someone, often in the context of relying upon God.
   - "متوكل" (mutawakkil): One who practices tawakkul or puts their trust in someone, usually God.
2. Key Verses and Contexts:
   - Reliance on God:
     One of the most frequent contexts where this root appears is in the concept of relying upon God. Tawakkul, or reliance upon God, is a significant theme in the Qur'an.
     
     Surah Al-Imran (3:159): 

   
     
Translation: "So when you have decided, then rely upon Allah. Indeed, Allah loves those who rely [upon Him]."
     
   - Representation and Guardianship:
     The term "wakīl" is often used to denote someone who is a representative or guardian on behalf of someone else.
     
     Surah Al-Nisa (4:83): 

    

Translation: "And when there comes to them information about [public] security or fear, they spread it around. But if they had referred it back to the Messenger or to those of authority among them, then the ones who [can] draw correct conclusions from it would have known about it. And if not for the favor of Allah upon you and His mercy, you would have followed Satan, except for a few."
3. Interconnectedness with Other Concepts:
   - Faith (إيمان):
     Tawakkul is intrinsically tied to faith. To truly rely upon God, one must have faith in His wisdom, power, and plan.
     
   - Fear (خوف) and Security (أمن):
     The idea of relying on God often comes up in contexts where there's mention of fear or seeking security. Tawakkul is an antidote to fear, as believers are reminded to place their trust in God regardless of circumstances.
     
   - Knowledge (علم):
     As seen in Surah Al-Nisa (4:83), the term "wakīl" is used in the context of those who possess knowledge and can derive correct conclusions. This ties the concept of guardianship or representation to knowledge and authority.
4. Semantic Field and Worldview:
   The root "و-ك-ل" primarily revolves around the themes of trust, reliance, representation, and guardianship. Its frequent usage in the Qur'an underscores the importance of placing trust in the Divine, especially in the face of adversity or uncertainty. This reliance on God is a central tenet of Islamic spirituality and ethics. Furthermore, the concept of representation or guardianship emphasizes the responsibilities of those in positions of authority and the importance of knowledge and discernment.
In summary, the root "و-ك-ل" contributes to the Qur'anic worldview where trust in God's plan and wisdom is paramount. At the same time, it emphasizes the responsibilities and roles of those who act as guardians or representatives on behalf of others.

We worked with the root w-k-l, for trust. Are there any other roots we could have used?
Yes, the concept of trust in the Qur'an is multi-faceted and is not limited to the root "و-ك-ل" (w-k-l). There are other roots that touch upon various aspects of trust, faith, and reliance. Here are some of the notable ones:
1. أ-م-ن (a-m-n):
   - This root gives rise to various words related to security, peace, and faith. 
   - "أمن" (amn) refers to security or peace.
   - "آمن" (āman) means to believe or have faith.
   - "مؤمن" (mu'min) is a believer or one who has faith.
   - "إيمان" (īmān) refers to faith or belief.
   This root is foundational to the concept of trust in the Qur'an, as it encapsulates the sense of security and peace that arises from faith in God.
2. ث-ق-ف (th-q-f):
   - This root is related to the idea of trusting in the sense of having confidence in something or finding something reliable.
   - "ثقة" (thiqah) means trust or confidence.
   
3. ص-د-ق (ṣ-d-q):
   - This root primarily relates to truthfulness and sincerity.
   - "صادق" (ṣādiq) means truthful or sincere.
   - "صدق" (ṣidq) refers to truth or honesty.
   - "تصديق" (taṣdīq) means to believe or confirm.
   While this root is more directly related to truth and honesty, it's intrinsically tied to trust because trustworthiness is based on truthfulness.
Each of these roots, along with "و-ك-ل" (w-k-l), captures different dimensions of trust, faith, and reliance as presented in the Qur'an. Together, they paint a comprehensive picture of how trust is understood and valued in the Qur'anic worldview.
Please do a field analysis of th-q-f
Certainly! Let's undertake a semantic field analysis of the root "ث-ق-ف" (th-q-f):
1. Occurrences and Forms:
   - "ثقة" (thiqah): Trust, confidence.
   - "مثقف" (muṯaqqaf): Intellectual, cultured person.
   - "ثقافة" (thaqāfah): Culture.
2. Key Verses and Contexts:
   The root "ث-ق-ف" isn't as frequent in the Qur'an as some other roots. However, its derivatives in later Arabic primarily revolve around the concepts of trust, confidence, intellect, and culture.
   Within the Qur'an, this root doesn't have a prominent representation. The emphasis on trust in the Qur'an is primarily through other roots like "و-ك-ل" and "أ-م-ن". 
3. Interconnectedness with Other Concepts:
   - Knowledge and Intellect:
     Given the derived meaning of "ثقافة" (culture) and "مثقف" (intellectual) in later Arabic, this root's semantic field in broader Arabic literature is closely tied to intellect, knowledge, and culture.
   - Trust and Reliability:
     "ثقة" (thiqah) implies a sense of reliability and confidence. It can be used to describe someone trustworthy or an idea that's reliable.
4. Semantic Field and Worldview:
   In the broader Arabic lexicon and literature, the root "ث-ق-ف" contributes to a worldview that values intellect, culture, and trustworthiness. Intellectual pursuits, the development and appreciation of culture, and the reliability of ideas or individuals all fall within the semantic field of this root.
In the context of the Qur'an specifically, other roots like "و-ك-ل" (trust, reliance) and "أ-م-ن" (security, peace, faith) are more central to the discourse on trust. However, in the broader Arabic and Islamic tradition, "ث-ق-ف" and its derivatives play a significant role in discussions about intellect, culture, and trustworthiness.
 
Please do a field analysis of s-d-q
Certainly! Let's delve into a semantic field analysis of the root "ص-د-ق" (ṣ-d-q):
1. Occurrences and Forms:
   - "صادق" (ṣādiq): Truthful, sincere.
   - "صدق" (ṣidq): Truth, honesty.
   - "مصدق" (muṣaddiq): One who believes or confirms.
   - "تصديق" (taṣdīq): To believe, confirm, or attest.
   - "صدقة" (ṣadaqah): Charitable giving or alms.
2. Key Verses and Contexts:
   - Truthfulness:
     The Qur'an frequently emphasizes the importance of truthfulness and honesty, often contrasting the truthful (الصادقين) with liars (الكاذبين).
     Surah Al-Baqarah (2:42 ):

    

     Translation: "And do not mix the truth with falsehood or conceal the truth while you know [it]."
   - Charity:
     The term "صدقة" (ṣadaqah) refers to voluntary charity. It is derived from the same root, suggesting that charitable giving is a truthful or sincere act.
     Surah Al-Baqarah (2:273):
    

     Translation: "For the [needy] who are restricted in the cause of Allah, unable to move about in the land. An ignorant [person] would think them self-sufficient because of their restraint, but you will know them by their [characteristic] sign. They do not ask people persistently [or at all]. And whatever you spend of good - indeed, Allah is Knowing of it."
3. Interconnectedness with Other Concepts:
   - Faith (إيمان):
     Truthfulness is intrinsically linked to faith. Being truthful or sincere in one's actions, words, and beliefs is a manifestation of genuine faith.
   - Opposition to Falsehood (باطل):
     The concept of "صدق" (truth) is often contrasted with "باطل" (falsehood) in the Qur'an, highlighting the perpetual struggle between truth and untruth.
   - Charity and Righteousness:
     The root's connection to charitable acts suggests a relationship between truthfulness and righteous actions. Giving in charity is seen as a sincere act of devotion.
4. Semantic Field and Worldview:
   The root "ص-د-ق" in the Qur'an contributes to a worldview that places a premium on truth, sincerity, and righteousness. Truthfulness is not just about speaking the truth but also about acting sincerely, upholding the truth in the face of falsehood, and manifesting one's inner beliefs through righteous actions like charity.
In essence, the "ص-د-ق" root and its derivatives paint a vivid picture of a life anchored in truth, both in word and deed. The Qur'an emphasizes that truthfulness is a hallmark of the believer and is central to the ethical and spiritual life envisioned by the text.

You previously analysed w-k-l in relation to Niklas Luhmann's understanding of trust, can you now expand that analysis to include th-q-f and s-d-q
Of course! Let's integrate the concepts derived from the roots "و-ك-ل" (w-k-l), "ث-ق-ف" (th-q-f), and "ص-د-ق" (ṣ-d-q) in relation to Niklas Luhmann's understanding of trust.
1. **Reduction of Complexity**:
   - **و-ك-ل**: This root's concept of "tawakkul" involves reliance on God, offering believers a mechanism to navigate life's complexities with a sense of divine oversight.
   - **ث-ق-ف**: While not prominently represented in the Qur'an, its derived meanings in broader Arabic convey confidence and reliability, aligning with Luhmann's idea of trust as a way to confidently navigate complexities.
   - **ص-د-ق**: Truth and sincerity (derived from this root) act as foundations for trust. A truthful environment reduces the complexities involved in interactions, as individuals can take statements and actions at face value.
- Luhmann: Trust simplifies the world by allowing individuals to proceed without exhaustive verification or control, facilitating smoother interactions in complex societies.
2. Risk and Vulnerability:
   - **و-ك-ل**: "Tawakkul" involves proactive action with reliance on God, acknowledging the inherent uncertainties of outcomes.
   - **ث-ق-ف**: Trusting someone's reliability or having confidence in an idea (based on this root) is a calculated risk.
   - **ص-د-ق**: Truthfulness minimizes the perceived risks in interactions. When individuals or systems are known to be truthful, the risks associated with trusting them are reduced. Luhmann: Engaging in trust inherently involves risk, but this risk is taken to facilitate action in a complex world.
3. Trust as a Basis for Action:
   - **و-ك-ل**: Tawakkul instructs believers to act and then leave the outcome to God.
   - **ث-ق-ف**: Having confidence in someone or something (related to this root) propels action based on that trust.
   - **ص-د-ق**: Truthfulness and sincerity foster an environment where actions can be taken based on trust, without constant verification.
Luhmann: Trust facilitates action without exhaustive information or guarantees.
4. Trust and Systems:
   - **و-ك-ل**: The idea of a "wakīl" or guardian implies trust in representatives or leaders to act on one's behalf, mirroring Luhmann's idea of trust within systems.
   - **ث-ق-ف**: The derived concept of cultural intellect or knowledge, while not directly from the Qur'an, suggests a trust in societal intellectual systems.
   - **ص-د-ق**: Truthfulness is fundamental for any system's integrity, from judicial to economic. Trust in these systems is rooted in their adherence to truth and honesty.
Luhmann: Trust is foundational for the functioning of societal systems, from economic to political.
5. Contingency:
   - **و-ك-ل**: Tawakkul is all about entrusting the unknown to God, navigating life's uncertainties with divine reliance.
   - **ث-ق-ف**: Confidence and reliability (related to this root) provide stability in the face of unforeseen challenges.
   - **ص-د-ق**: Truth and sincerity create a predictable environment, reducing the uncertainties in interactions.
Luhmann: Trust helps handle the unknown and the unforeseen. It provides a way to navigate uncertainty.