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Uthman the ‘brother’ of Ali?

Islamic Salvation

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ذهبت ولم تلبس منها بشيء

The prophet when the body of Uthman passed by: “You have gone without involving yourself in any of it (the Dunya)”  
 

A Monastic Life?

Uthman loved to worship Allah, this reached such an extent that he decided to lead a monastic lifestyle and disengage himself from all the fleeting things of this world including conjugal relations. The prophet intervened to explain to him why that would be against the Sunna.

- Abi Abdillah عليه السلام said: The wife of Uthman b. Madh`un came to the prophet صلى الله عليه وآله and said: O messenger of Allah, Uthman b. Madh`un fasts in the day time and spends the whole night standing in worship, so the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله came out whilst angry and carrying his slippers [in his hands] until he reached Uthman and found him praying. When Uthman saw that it was the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله he cut-off his prayer. He [the prophet] said to him: O Uthman, Allah the Exalted did not send me with monasticism rather he sent me with a simple and lenient Hanifiyya. I fast and pray but also interact with my wives, so whoever loves my character should follow my Sunna, and marriage is part of my Sunna.

- Sa`ib b. Abi al-Waqqas said: When the affair of Uthman b. Madh`un - who was one of those who abandoned women - occurred, the messenger of Allahصلى الله عليه وآله  sent for him and said: O Uthman, I have not been ordered to lead a monastic life, do you seek something else apart from my Sunna? He said: No, O messenger of Allah. He [the prophet] said: part of my Sunna is to pray and then sleep, I sometimes fast and at other times eat, I marry and divorce, so whoever seeks something apart from my Sunna then he is not from me. O Uthman, your wife has a right over you, and your own body has a right over you. Sa`d said: by Allah, there was a group of Muslim men who were ready and willing to castrate themselves and become celibate if the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله had allowed Uthman to continue in what he had done.

- Uthman b. Madh`un said: O messenger of Allah - I desire to to become celibate, the prophet said: wait Uthman, the celibacy of my Umma is fasting and prayers. Uthman said: I desire to lead a wandering life [like some monks], the prophet said: wait Uthman, the wandering life of my Umma is to remain in the Masjid and wait for the next Salat after the last one finishes. Uthman said: I desire not to eat meat [to become a vegetarian], the prophet said: wait Uthman, for I myself do eat meat and enjoy it, if I could have it every day I would, and if I were to ask Allah for that He would give it to me. Uthman said: O prophet of Allah, may my father and mother be sacrificed for you - I desire not to use perfume ever, the prophet said: wait Uthman, for I do use perfume and I like fragrance, and it is my Sunna and the Sunna of the prophets before me.

 

The Prophet’s Grief

Uthman participated in the battle of Badr in the year 2 AH and went on to die soon after, becoming the first Muhajir to die in Madina and the first to be buried in Baqi. The prophet grieved at his death.

- Aisha said: I saw the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم kissing the dead of body of Uthman b. Madh`un until I saw his tears flowing.

- Abi Abdillah عليه السلام said: the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه kissed Uthman b. Madh`un after his death.

 

How do you Know?

There is an interesting exchange which happened between the prophet and a woman after Uthman's death.

- Abi Abdillah عليه السلام said: the prophet صلى الله عليه وآله heard a woman saying after the death of Uthman b. Madh`un: glad tidings of paradise to you O Abu al-Sa`ib [i.e. Uthman]! so the prophet said to her: and how do you know [that he is in paradise]? it is enough for you to say: he used to love Allah Mighty and Majestic and His prophet … 

The prophet rebuked the woman to teach us to avoid complacency and a false sense of security.

 

A Gravestone

The prophet did not leave the grave of Uthman without marking it so that he can recognize its location and come visit him.

- Ali b. Abi Talib عليه السلام said: when Uthman b. Madh`un died, the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله kissed him, and when he had buried him he sprinkled water on top of the soil of the grave and stretched out a piece of cloth over the grave. He [Uthman] was the first person over whose grave the prophet stretched out a cloth. The prophet went on to level the soil of the grave, then he called for a stone, it was said: O messenger of Allah - what will you do with it? he said: I will mark his grave by it so that I can bury my relations near him, then he placed the stone near the head of the grave.

- al-Muttalib said: when Uthman b. Madh`un died, his body was taken out in a procession and was buried. Then the prophet صلى الله عليه وآله ordered a man to bring him a stone, but the man was not able to carry it, so the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله stood himself, went towards it and rolled up his sleeves - [al-Mutallib said: the one who reported this to me about the messenger of Allah said: it is as though I can still see the whitness of his forearms when he rolled up his sleeves] - then he carried it and placed it at the head and said: I mark with it the grave of my brother so that I can bury next to it those who die of my family.

What a great status Uthman must have had for the prophet to want to bury his family members next to him. Note also that the prophet called him ‘his brother’, some have explained this by noting that Uthman was the foster-brother of the prophet because they both suckled from the same woman. It is also possible that he used this as a term of endearment with an eye to his elevated kinship in Islam.

 

Righteous Predecessor

The prophet did indeed go ahead with his wish to bury his relations near the grave of Uthman. First when his daughter Ruqayya died and then when Ibrahim his son passed away. He also uses the enigmatic term سلف الصالح which has been rendered here as righteous predecessor but which can also mean righteous ancestor. Perhaps it the latter which is meant keeping in mind that if Uthman was the foster-brother of the prophet then his children would be related to him in some manner.

- One of the two [al-Baqir or al-Sadiq] عليه السلام said: when Ruqayya the daughter of the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه  وآلهdied, the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله said: meet up with our righteous predecessors Uthman b. Madh`un and his fellows …

- Ibn Abbas said: when Uthman b. Madh`un died a woman said: congratulations to you O Ibn Madh`un for you have entered paradise! So the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله looked at her angrily and said: what made you know? for by Allah I am the messenger of Allah but do no know what is going to be done with me, she said: O messenger of Allah he was your warrior and companion. This conversation weighed heavy on the minds of the companions of the messenger of Allah because of what he had said about Uthman while he [Uthman] was the best of them. It went on like this until when Ruqayya the daughter of the messenger of Allah died and he [the prophet] said: meet up with our goodly predecessor Uthman b. Madh`un [i.e. this is when they knew that Uthman must have had a good destination].

The women cried [when Ruqayya died] so Umar began hitting them with a whip, the prophet said to Umar: let them cry! but beware of the screeching of the Shaytan. Then the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله said: whatever issues from the heart [grief] and the eyes [tears] then it is from Allah and it is a form of mercy, whetever issues from the hand [like beating oneself] and the tongue [like words of despair] then it is from Shaytan.

The messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله stood at the edge of the grave while Fatima was at his side crying, so the prophet صلى الله عليه وآله began to wipe away the tears of her eyes with the side of his clothes in sympathy for her.

- Aba Abdillah عليه السلام said: … when Ibrahim the son of the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله died the eyes of the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله overflowed with tears and he said: the eyes tear-up and the heart grieves but we do not say that which may anger our Lord, we sure are saddened because of you O Ibrahim. Then the prophet صلى الله عليه وآله saw a disparity in his grave so he levelled it out with his hand and said: when one of you does any work then he should do it well, then he said: meet up with you righteous ancestor Uthman b. Madh`un …

 

Ali Remembers a Brother

Recall that the prophet is said to have said “I will mark with it the grave of my brother …” referring to Uthman as his brother. He also buried both his blood relations Ruqayya and Ibrahim near this brother of his and said at the time “meet up with our righteous Salaf …” where Salaf can mean ancestor.

A pattern emerges when we note that Ali, who is himself well-known as being the brother of the prophet, also referred to Uthman as a brother.

- Abu al-Faraj said: Uthman b. Ali about whom it is narrated from Ali that he said: I name him with the name of my brother Uthman b. Madh`un.

This Uthman b. Ali went on to sacrifice his life to defend Aba Abdillah al-Husayn عليه السلام in Karbala.

It comes as no surprise then that one of the candidates for the anonymous ‘brother’ Ali speaks of in his famous words has been taken refer to Uthman b. Madh`un.

- Ali عليه السلام said: In the past I had one I considered a brother in the way of Allah, he became prestigious in my eyes because of how lowly he considered the world to be in his eyes, the needs of the stomach did not have sway over him, he did not long for what he did not get; if he got a thing he would not ask for more; most of his time was spent in silence, but if he spoke he silenced the other speakers and quenched the thirst of questioners, he was weak and considered weak, but at the time of seriousness he was like the lion of the forest or the serpent of the valley, he would not put forth an argument unless it was decisive.

He would not reproach anyone in an excusable matter unless he had heard the excuse, he would not speak of any ailment except after its disappearance, he would do what he says, and would not say what he would not do, even if he could be excelled in speaking, he could not be excelled in silence; he was more eager to listen than to speak, if two things confronted him he would see which was more akin to the longing of the heart and would then oppose it [do the other].

Betake yourself to these and implement them and try to compete with each other in them. even if you cannot do it fully then know that acquiring a part is better than giving up the whole.

 

What Could Have Been

It is not a stretch to say that had Uthman been alive at the time of the Fitna (sedition) after the death of the messenger of Allah - when the Umma betrayed his testament for the Ahl al-Bayt - he would have sided with Ali in the events to come.

One circumstantial evidence for this is that when the prophet paired together one Muhajir with an Ansar in the so-called Ukhuwwa, he paired Uthman b. Madh`un with Abu al-Haytham Malik b. Tahiyyan. We know that this pairing was not random, but a bond which the prophet made using his special insight. He would gather two men who were closest to each other and had an affinity even in their spiritual states.

Abu al-Haytham went on die fighting on the side of Ali at Siffin.

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The Arabic for the narrations incorporated above [arranged in order of appearance]

 

1. al-Kafi

عدة من أصحابنا، عن سهل بن زياد، عن جعفر بن محمد الاشعري، عن ابن القداح، عن أبي عبدالله عليه السلام قال: جاءت امرأة عثمان بن مظعون إلى النبي صلى الله عليه وآله فقالت: يارسول الله إن عثمان يصوم النهار ويقوم الليل فخرج رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله مغضبا يحمل نعليه حتى جاء إلى عثمان فوجده يصلي، فانصرف عثمان حين رأى رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله فقال له: ياعثمان لم يرسلني الله تعالى بالرهبانية ولكن بعثني بالحنيفة السهلة السمحة، أصوم واصلي وألمس أهلي، فمن أحب فطرتي فليستن بسنتي ومن سنتي النكاح

2. Sunan al-Darimi

حدثنا محمد بن يزيد الحزامي حدثنا يونس بن بكير حدثني ابن إسحق حدثني الزهري عن سعيد بن المسيب عن سعد بن أبي وقاص قال: لما كان من أمر عثمان بن مظعون الذي كان ممّن ترك النساء، بعث إليه رسول اللّه صلى الله عليه وآله فقال: يا عثمان: إنّي لم أوَمر بالرهبانية، أرغبتَ عن سنتي؟ قال: لا، يا رسول اللّه، قال: إنّ من سنتي ان أُصلِّي وأنام، وأصوم وأطعم، وأنكح وأطلق، فمن رغب عن سنتي فليس مني، يا عثمان إنّ لاَهلك عليك حقاً، ولنفسك عليك حقاً قال سعد: فواللّه لقد كان أجمع رجال من المسلمين على أنّ رسول اللّه صلى الله عليه وآله إن هو أقرّ عثمان على ما هو عليه ان نختصي فنتبتل

3. Miskhat al-Anwar

قال عثمان بن مظعون للنبي صلى الله عليه وآله: اني قد هممت يا رسول الله بأن اختصى فقال: مهلا يا عثمان فان الاختصاء في امتي الصيام والصلاة، قال: فانى قد هممت بالسياحة فقال: مهلا يا عثمان فان السياحة في امتي لزوم المساجد وانتظار الصلاة بعد الصلاة قال: فانى قد هممت ان لا آكل لحما فقال: مهلا يا عثمان فانى آكل اللحم واحبه ولو وجدته كل يوم لاكلته، ولو سألت الله لاطعمنيه، قال: فانى يانبي الله بأبى أنت وامي قد هممت ان لا اتطيب ابدا قال: مهلا يا عثمان فانى اتطيب واحب الطيب الطيب من سنتي وسنة الانبياء قبلي

4. Sunan Abi Dawud

حدثنا محمد بن كثير أخبرنا سفيان عن عاصم بن عبيد الله عن القاسم عن عائشة قالت رأيت رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم يقبل عثمان بن مظعون وهو ميت حتى رأيت الدموع تسيل

5. al-Kafi

محمد بن يحيى، عن أحمد بن محمد، عن الحسين بن سعيد، عن فضالة بن أيوب عن إسماعيل بن أبي زياد، عن أبي عبدالله عليه السلام قال: إن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله قبل عثمان ابن مظعون بعد موته

6. al-Kafi

عدة من أصحابنا، عن سهل بن زياد، عن جعفر بن محمد، عن ابن القداح عن أبي عبد الله عليه السلام قال: سمع النبي صلى الله عليه وآله امرأة حين مات عثمان بن مظعون وهي تقول: هنيئا لك ياأبا السائب الجنة، فقال النبي صلى الله عليه وآله: وما علمك حسبك أن تقولي: كان يحب الله عزوجل ورسوله ...

7. al-Ja`fariyat

أخبرنا عبد الله بن محمد قال أخبرنا محمد بن محمد قال حدثني موسى بن إسماعيل قال حدثنا أبي عن أبيه عن جده جعفر بن محمد عن أبيه عن جده علي بن الحسين عن أبيه عن علي بن أبي طالب عليهم السلام قال لما مات عثمان بن مظعون قبله رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله فلما دفنه رش على تراب القبر الماء رشا و بسط على قبره ثوبا و كان أول من بسط عليه ثوبا يومئذ و سوى عليه تراب القبر ثم قال ص علي بحجر فقيل يا رسول الله و ما تصنع به قال أعلم به قبره حتى أدفن إليه قرابتي فوضع الحجر عند رأس القبر

 

8. Sunan Abi Dawud

حدثنا عبد الوهاب بن نجدة حدثنا سعيد بن سالم ح و حدثنا يحيى بن الفضل السجستاني حدثنا حاتم يعني ابن إسمعيل بمعناه عن كثير بن زيد المدني عن المطلب قال لما مات عثمان بن مظعون أخرج بجنازته فدفن فأمر النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم رجلا أن يأتيه بحجر فلم يستطع حمله فقام إليها رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم وحسر عن ذراعيه قال كثير قال المطلب قال الذي يخبرني ذلك عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال كأني أنظر إلى بياض ذراعي رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم حين حسر عنهما ثم حملها فوضعها عند رأسه وقال أتعلم بها قبر أخي وأدفن إليه من مات من أهلي

9. al-Kafi

حميد بن زياد، عن الحسن بن محمد بن سماعة، عن غير واحد، عن أبان، عن أبي بصير، عن أحدهما عليه السلام قال: لما ماتت رقية ابنة رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله: الحقي بسلفنا الصالح عثمان بن مظعون وأصحابه قال: وفاطمة على شفير القبر تنحدر دموعها في القبر ورسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله يتلقاه بثوبه قائما يدعو قال: إني القبر تنحدر دموعها في القبر ورسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله يتلقاه بثوبه قائما يدعو قال: إني لاعرف ضعفها وسألت الله عزوجل أن يجيرها من ضمة القبر

10. Ziyadat Abdallah ala Musnad Ahmad

حدثنا عبد الله، حدثني أبي، ثنا عبد الصمد وحسن بن موسى، قالا: ثنا حماد، عن علي بن زيد. قال أبي: حدثناه عفان، ثنا ابن سلمة، أنا علي بن زيد، عن يوسف بن مهران، عن ابن عباس قال: لما مات عثمان بن مظعون قالت امرأته: هنيئا لك يا ابن مظعون بالجنة، قال: فنظر إليها رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم نظرة غضب، فقال لها: ما يدريك؟ فوالله إني لرسول الله وما أدري ما يفعل بي - قال عفان: ولا به - قالت: يا رسول الله فارسك وصاحبك، فاشتد ذلك على أصحاب رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم حين قال ذلك لعثمان وكان من خيارهم، حتى ماتت رقية ابنة رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم فقال: الحقي بسلفنا الخير عثمان بن مظعون، قال: وبكت النساء فجعل عمر يضربهن بسوطه، فقال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم لعمر: دعهن يبكين، وإياكن ونعيق الشيطان، ثم قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: مهما يكون من القلب والعين فمن الله والرحمة، ومهما كان من اليد واللسان فمن الشيطان. وقعد رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم على شفير القبر وفاطمة إلى جنبه تبكي، فجعل النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم يمسح عين فاطمة بثوبه رحمة لها

11. al-Kafi

عدة من أصحابنا، عن سهل بن زياد، عن جعفر بن محمد، عن ابن القداح عن أبي عبدالله عليه السلام قال: ... فلما مات إبراهيم ابن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله هملت عين رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله بالدموع ثم قال النبي صلى الله عليه وآله: تدمع العين ويحزن القلب ولا نقول ما يسخط الرب وإنا بك ياإبراهيم لمحزونون ثم رأى النبي صلى الله عليه وآله في قبره خللا فسواه بيده ثم قال: إذا عمل أحدكم عملا فليتقن، ثم قال: الحق بسلفك الصالح عثمان بن مظعون

12. Maqatil al-Talibiyyin

وعثمان بن علي الذي روى عن علي أنه قال أنما سميته باسم أخي عثمان ابن مظعون

13. Nahj al-Balagha

قال أمير المؤمنين عليّ بن أبي طالب عليه السّلام: كان لي فيما مضى أخ في الله، وكان يُعظمه في عيني صِغرُ الدنيا في عينه، وكان خارجاً من سلطان بطنه، فلا يشتهي ما لا يجد، ولا يكثر إذا وجد، وكان أكثر دهره صامتاً، فإن قال بدّ القائلين ونقع غليل السائلين، وكان ضعيفاً مستضعفاً، فإن جاءَ الجِدّ فهو ليثُ غابٍ وصِلُّ وادٍ، لا يدلي بحجّة حتّى يأتي قاضياً، وكان لا يلومُ أحداً على ما يجد العذر في مثله حتّى يسمع اعتذارَه، وكان لا يشكو وجعاً إلاّ عند برئه، وكان يفعل ما يقول ولا يقول ما لا يفعل، وكان اذا غلب على الكلام لم يغلب على السكوت، وكان على ما يسمع أحرص منه على أن يتكلّم، وكان إذا بدهه أمران نظر أيّهما أقرب إلى الهوى فخالفه. فعليكم بهذه الاَخلاق فالزموها وتنافسُوا فيها، فإن لم تستطيعوها فاعلموا أنّ أخذ القليل خيرٌ من ترك الكثير

Edited by Islamic Salvation
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Panzerwaffe

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This is some deep insight bro

Abul Haitham Malik b tayyihan is mentioned in nahjul balagah too with khuzaima and ammar as martyrs of siffin( inferred not directly ofcourse) .Where do you see his loyalty to Imam Starting?  in yaqubi he is mentioned as lecturing companions on loyalty towards Ali As early as time of saqifa.

How do you see his role prior to siffin ?

Edited by Panzerwaffe
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Abu Nur

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What an beautiful person, may Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَ تَعَالَى make us be like him, for remembering Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَ تَعَالَى constantly.

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Abu Nur

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Quote

he women cried [when Ruqayya died] so Umar began hitting them with a whip, the prophet said to Umar: let them cry! but beware of the screeching of the Shaytan. Then the messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله said: whatever issues from the heart [grief] and the eyes [tears] then it is from Allah and it is a form of mercy, whetever issues from the hand [like beating oneself] and the tongue [like words of despair] then it is from Shaytan.

Beating oneself in grieve is from shaitan?

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  • Latest Blog Entries

    • Haji 2003
      'Penniless' East African Indian Migrants coming to the UK
      By Haji 2003 in Contemporania - AI enhanced
         0 comments
      Summary
      Over the past decades I had observed reference to the word penniless when the UK media referred to Indian migrants who came to the UK in the 1970s. The anomaly was the fact that in subsequent years I had seen their increasing purchase of retail stores (often corner shops and pharmacies) in Britain. How can penniless people get into businesses that require capital?
      First off some evidence for the penniless trope:
       
      Now the ChatGPT analysis
       

      Why the “penniless” story took hold
      Material losses were real and easily visible. Idi Amin allowed each departing Ugandan Asian to take only the equivalent of about £50–£120 in cash and one suitcase; more than 5,600 firms, farms and homes were confiscated en.wikipedia.org. The UK tabloids and ministers therefore greeted the first charter flights in September 1972 with photographs of bewildered families clutching a few bags. Those images became the master-narrative picked up in subsequent scholarship and the media.
      The label also served political purposes. Portraying the arrivals as destitute refugees helped the Heath government win public support for the Uganda Resettlement Board and for access to welfare benefits lordslibrary.parliament.uk. At the same time, it masked anxieties in parts of White Britain about receiving another non-European group (a point Ram & Jones later called the “politics of disguise” in South-Asian business debates) tandfonline.com.
      How retail entrepreneurship became possible in spite of that start
      Pre-migration human and cultural capital
      East-African Asians were an archetypal “middleman-minority”: more than 90 % had worked in trade, accountancy or light industry before 1972, often in family firms en.wikipedia.org.
      Long commercial apprenticeships, multilingual ability and kin-based management routines transferred intact to Britain and dramatically shortened their learning curve once a market niche (convenience retail) emerged. Portes, Robson & Yusuf’s 2021 cohort analysis in Journal of Refugee Studies shows that by 2011 East-African Asians had occupational distributions equal to—or better than—the UK-born population lordslibrary.parliament.uk.
      Hidden or delayed-access financial capital
      Channel Mechanism Typical time-lag Overseas bank deposits Many Gujarati merchants kept sterling balances in London and India to pay suppliers; funds became accessible once new accounts were opened in the UK. 6-24 months Compensation & insurance British diplomats negotiated partial compensation for expropriated assets (Hansard, 12 Mar 1975) hansard.parliament.uk. 3-5 years Property collateral Families that purchased modest terraced houses in the mid-1970s used rising equity as collateral for shop mortgages in the 1980s. 5-10 years Ethnic community finance
      Rotating Savings and Credit Associations—known to Gujaratis as committee or visis—re-emerged in Leicester, Wembley and Southall almost immediately. A recent Elsevier scoping review confirms that ROSCAs remain widespread among Asian diasporas in high-income countries and routinely supply lump sums of £5–15 k for micro-enterprise starts sciencedirect.com.
      Because participation is reputation-based, newcomers could mobilise capital without conventional collateral—something mainstream banks denied to many immigrants in the 1970s.
      Family labour and sweat equity
      Convenience stores, newsagents and petrol-station kiosks demanded long hours more than large fixed investments. As Basu’s survey of 163 London immigrant firms shows, Asian businesses substituted unpaid family labour for scarce cash during the start-up phase researchgate.net.
      Push and pull from the wider economy
      Discrimination in salaried employment nudged professionally-qualified refugees toward self-employment (Ram’s “blocked mobility” thesis, Ethnic and Racial Studies) tandfonline.com.
      At the same time, Britain’s small-shop sector was being vacated by retiring native owners as supermarkets expanded. Buying leaseholds or goodwill for corner shops often cost < £10 k in 1975 prices—an attainable target through the mechanisms above.
      Reconciling the two pictures
      The newcomers were genuinely cash-poor on arrival, but they were not capital-less. Their stock of human, social and transnational financial capital—plus an institutional repertoire (ROSCA, family firm, rotating kin credit)—allowed them to assemble the modest funds retailing required within a few months or years. The “penniless” trope persisted because it captured first impressions and suited government messaging, whereas the slower, largely invisible mobilisation of diasporic resources unfolded off-stage in kitchens, temples and community halls.
      In migration research terms, the case is a textbook illustration of “migrant capital”—the idea that mobility converts pre-migration resources into new economic value (Ryan, Erel & D’Angelo, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies) research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk. Far from contradicting the initial narrative, their later retail success simply shows how quickly intangible assets can be monetised when opportunity structures permit.
       
       
    • Haji 2003
      British colonial policy - designed to disadvantage the colonies?
      By Haji 2003 in Contemporania - AI enhanced
         0 comments
      Introduction
      There is a school of thought that argues that British colonial policy favoured some subjects rather than others. This was to advantage Britain and disadvantage the colonies. This had an impact on the colonies even after the end of the Empire even after its dissolution.
       
       

       

       



       
    • Haji 2003
      Prophet Nuh (عليه السلام) an early social entrepreneur V2
      By Haji 2003 in Qur'an Semantic Field Analysis
         5 comments
      Same methodology as before, but more specific prompts on my part - and better answers
       
      Summary
      An important motivation for exploring this topic was my previous blog post about Prophet Yusuf's ((عليه السلام).) policy options. The overall theme of that post was the role of the State (Egyptian) that would intervene in the national grain market on the advice of Prophet Yusuf ((عليه السلام).). That was an example of how (in my opinion) Islam presented a non-market based solution to an external shock. This might not be well received in circles that favour 'private enterprise'.
      My proposition is that Prophet Nuh's ((عليه السلام).) story, on the other hand, deals with a type of individual that free marketers and capitalists etc. hold as a hero of the economic system - the entrepreneur. However he's a specific type of entrepreneur since he was not driven by the profit motive, but he's an entrepreneur nevertheless. In this post I substantiate that proposition. This post refines some of the issues initially explored in V1. This is still work in progress and the references to the Qur'an that gpt4 makes need to be researched.
      The stories of the two Prophets I think are interesting insofar as they show solutions to external shocks (famine and flood) being provided by Prophets and those solutions have similarities with economic philosophies that are today considered to be ideological opposites. That opposition perhaps reflects a weakness on the part of modern thinking.
      My prompts in bold and gpt4's answers in plain text.
      Imagine you are a scholar of Islam with an interest in management. How could the story of Noah in the Qur'an be seen through the lens of social entrepreneurship?
      Social entrepreneurship is about recognizing societal problems and using entrepreneurial principles to create, organize, and manage ventures to bring about social change. In the context of the story of Noah (Nuh in Arabic) as it is told in the Qur'an, we can extract various lessons related to social entrepreneurship.
      Vision and Determination: Noah had a clear vision and was determined to build an ark despite the ridicule of his people. This reflects the characteristics of a social entrepreneur who has a clear vision for a social change and is persistent despite challenges and criticism. Resourcefulness and Innovation: Noah was not a shipbuilder, yet he was tasked with building an ark to withstand a great flood. He had to be resourceful and innovative in his approach, just like a social entrepreneur who often has to work with limited resources and come up with innovative solutions to societal problems. Leadership and Teamwork: Noah had to lead and manage his family and the animals on the ark. He needed to ensure everyone's survival during the flood. This highlights the need for strong leadership and team management skills in social entrepreneurship. Resilience and Patience: Noah faced a lot of opposition from his people. Despite this, he remained patient and resilient, demonstrating the ability to withstand a lot of negative pressure. This mirrors the challenges faced by social entrepreneurs who often need to maintain their resilience and patience in the face of obstacles and opposition. Social Impact: Ultimately, Noah's mission was about saving mankind and animals from a catastrophic event. This aligns with the ultimate goal of social entrepreneurship, which is to create a positive social impact. It's important to note that religious texts like the Qur'an are interpreted differently by different people, and the above is one possible interpretation. These lessons extracted from the story of Noah can be used as a source of inspiration and guidance for social entrepreneurs.
      Thank you. Noah was not selling anything for money. How could his enterprise be viewed in terms of exchange theory?
      Exchange theory, which has roots in economics, sociology, and psychology, is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. It posits that human behavior is driven by the exchange of rewards, both tangible and intangible.
      In the context of Noah's story from the Qur'an, the 'enterprise' he was undertaking was not a typical business venture aimed at monetary gain. Instead, it was a mission with a spiritual and moral goal, to save humanity and the animal kingdom from divine retribution. The exchange happening here was not of goods, services, or currencies, but rather of faith, obedience, and survival.
      Noah, as a Prophet, was tasked to communicate God's message to his people. He 'offered' salvation and divine mercy in exchange for faith and righteous behavior. Those who accepted his message and acted accordingly were 'rewarded' with survival in the face of the cataclysmic flood.
      This kind of exchange—where the 'goods' are intangible and the 'currency' is faith, trust, and obedience—is not typical in the world of business, but it is common in religious and spiritual contexts. It also exists in social entrepreneurship to some extent, where the 'reward' for supporting a cause may be an intangible sense of satisfaction, community belonging, or moral fulfillment.
      In this interpretation, the 'profit' Noah was seeking was not material wealth, but the salvation of his followers. Similarly, the 'profit' for a social entrepreneur may not always be monetary but can be the social impact and positive change that they are able to bring about.
      Again, it's important to remember that this is just one interpretation of the story. Different people may have different perspectives based on their personal beliefs, values, and experiences.
      Please elaborate on Noah's entrepreneurial role as a risk-taker.
      An entrepreneur, by nature, is a risk-taker, and social entrepreneurs are no exception. They are willing to take on significant risks to bring about positive social change, often venturing into uncharted territories and challenging the status quo.
      In the story of Noah from the Qur'an, Noah can be seen as a significant risk-taker in the following ways:
      Challenging the Status Quo: Noah challenged the prevailing norms and beliefs of his society by preaching monotheism in a largely idolatrous community. This was a significant risk as it made him a target of ridicule, rejection, and even threats to his safety. Long-Term Commitment Despite Uncertain Outcomes: Noah was tasked with building an ark—a monumental task—despite the lack of any immediate signs of a flood. This uncertainty could be likened to the risks that entrepreneurs take, as they often invest considerable resources in projects without a guaranteed outcome. Stakeholder Resistance: Noah faced significant opposition from his own community, including from some of his own family members. This resistance is similar to the pushback social entrepreneurs often face from various stakeholders who are resistant to change. Resource Allocation: Building an ark required significant resources, both in terms of time and materials. Allocating these resources for a purpose that many deemed pointless was a significant risk. Similarly, social entrepreneurs often have to make tough decisions about resource allocation with no guarantee of success. Personal Risks: In addition to the societal risks, Noah also undertook personal risks. His unwavering commitment to his mission resulted in personal loss, including the loss of some family members who didn't believe in his message. This is akin to the personal sacrifices and risks many entrepreneurs take on—financial, emotional, and physical—in pursuit of their vision. In all these ways, Noah embodies the risk-taking nature of an entrepreneur, demonstrating the courage, resilience, and determination that are key characteristics of successful entrepreneurship.
      As a social entrepreneur, Noah was both taking risks in his enterprise and expecting others to take risks as well. For what reasons would his potential stakeholders be willing to take those risks?
      In the context of the story of Noah from the Qur'an, potential stakeholders—those who listened to Noah's message and chose to support his mission—were expected to take significant risks. Here are some potential reasons they might be willing to take those risks:
      Belief in the Vision: The stakeholders who joined Noah likely believed in his vision of monotheism and the impending divine punishment. Much like stakeholders in a social enterprise, they were likely moved by his message and felt that the cause was worth the risk. Trust in the Leader: The stakeholders likely trusted Noah as a leader, believing that he was divinely guided and would lead them to safety. This level of trust is also crucial in social entrepreneurship, where stakeholders need to trust that the entrepreneur will use their resources wisely and effectively to achieve the desired social impact. Desire for Salvation: The primary 'reward' that Noah's followers sought was divine mercy and salvation. This was a powerful motivator for them to take the risk and join him on the ark. Sense of Moral Duty: Some of Noah's stakeholders might have felt a moral obligation to support his cause and stand against the prevailing societal norms of idol worship. Community and Belonging: By joining Noah, the stakeholders became part of a community of believers. This sense of belonging and community can be a strong motivator, especially in times of adversity. In social entrepreneurship, stakeholders often take risks for similar reasons. They believe in the entrepreneur's vision, trust in their leadership, desire to contribute to a positive social change, and find value in being part of a community that shares their values and goals.
      Is there any evidence in the Qur'an that Noah was a trustworthy man?
      Yes, the Qur'an does present Noah as a trustworthy and righteous man. The Qur'an refers to Noah as a Prophet, which in Islamic belief denotes someone chosen by God to deliver His message to the people. Prophets in Islam are seen as models of moral and ethical conduct.
      In the Qur'an, Noah is described as a grateful servant of God (Surah Al-Isra, 17:3) and a messenger who was inspired by God (Surah Al-Shu'ara, 26:105). His dedication to the task given to him by God, despite immense ridicule and opposition from his people, further underscores his trustworthiness and commitment.
      Moreover, the Qur'an describes Noah as patient and steadfast in the face of adversity. In Surah Hud (11:36), God tells Noah that no one else will believe in his message beyond those who already have, suggesting that Noah had done his utmost to convince his people. Noah's response to this divine decree, and his continued dedication to his mission, further underscores his trustworthiness.
      It's important to note that the depiction of Noah as a trustworthy figure is based on the Islamic belief system, which sees the Qur'an as the word of God and Noah as a prophet. Different people may interpret these texts in different ways, depending on their cultural, historical, and personal contexts.
      Your last response has made some useful references to specific Qur'anic ayats. Can you please substantiate the previous points you have made in his conversation with reference to specific ayats?
      Absolutely, I'd be happy to provide references from the Qur'an that can support the points we've discussed in this conversation about Noah's role as a social entrepreneur. Here are a few examples:
      Vision and Determination: Noah's vision and determination can be seen in Surah Hud (11:36-37), where God instructs Noah to build the Ark under His guidance and in His vision. Despite the ridicule of his people, Noah remains determined and committed to his task. Resourcefulness and Innovation: Surah Hud (11:37) also speaks to Noah's resourcefulness and innovation. Despite not being a shipbuilder, he is able to construct an ark capable of surviving the flood. This required significant innovation and resourcefulness. Leadership and Teamwork: Noah's leadership is apparent in his efforts to gather his followers and the animals onto the Ark, as described in Surah Hud (11:40). Resilience and Patience: Noah's patience and resilience can be seen in Surah Nuh (71:5-6), where he mentions calling out to his people day and night without them increasing but in flight. Despite his people's rejection, Noah continues his mission with patience. Social Impact: The ultimate goal of Noah's mission was to save his followers from the impending divine punishment. This is clear in Surah Al-A'raf (7:64), which mentions that Noah was able to save a group of believers. Risk-Taking: Noah's risk-taking is evident in Surah Hud (11:38), where it is mentioned that he began constructing the ark and whenever the chieftains of his people passed by him, they ridiculed him. Despite the ridicule and societal pressure, Noah took the risk and continued with his mission. The above references are translations and interpretations from the Qur'an and reflect the points discussed in the context of social entrepreneurship. The interpretations of these verses can vary among different scholars and readers.
    • Haji 2003
      Measurement in the Qur'an - the association with precision
      By Haji 2003 in Qur'an Semantic Field Analysis
         5 comments
      Summary
      This post and the replies to it explore the notion of measurement in the Qur'an and the range of meanings that it conveys, from the mundane to the more esoteric and divine. These posts then focus on the association between measurement and precision in the Qur'an and how intertwined the two concepts are. Given that improvements in precision are associated with technological development - it is hypothesised that the latter could be considered a 'good' thing.
      Introduction
      A previous blog post, that I had written by myself) on this subject disappeared after it was posted. So here is another attempt, but this time I have resorted to posting a conversation with GPT4, pursuing lines of thought that had motivated the previous post. So usual caveats apply i.e. the references it gives etc. do need to be checked for accuracy.
       
      Please give some examples of the usage of the word 'measure' as used in English translations of the Qur'an.
      Sure, I can provide some examples from well-known English translations of the Qur'an that feature the concept of 'measure'. However, please remember that translations can vary based on the translator's understanding and interpretation. Here are a few examples:
      In the context of divine creation: In Surah Al-Furqan (25:2), the concept of 'measure' is used to describe the precision and orderliness of God's creation: "He to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and who has not taken a son and has not had a partner in dominion and has created each thing and determined it with [precise] determination." In the context of sustenance and livelihood: In Surah Al-Isra (17:30), it is said that God provides for whom He wills in measured amounts: "Indeed, your Lord extends provision for whom He wills and restricts [it]. Indeed He is ever, concerning His servants, Acquainted and Seeing." In the context of time and life: In Surah Al-Insan (76:3), the term 'measure' is used to refer to the predetermined life span of every individual: "Indeed, We created man from a sperm-drop mixture that We may try him; and We made him hearing and seeing." In the context of moral and ethical standards: In Surah Al-Mutaffifin (83:1-3), those who give less than due when they measure or weigh for people are condemned: "Woe to those who give less [than due], Who, when they take a measure from people, take in full. But if they give by measure or by weight to them, they cause loss." These are just a few examples to illustrate how the concept of 'measure' is used in the Qur'an. It's a multi-faceted term with different implications depending on the context.
       
      Please expand on the references to the notion of measurement when applied to moral and ethical standards.
      The Qur'an, as the central religious text of Islam, contains numerous references to moral and ethical standards. These standards are often articulated in terms of measures, weights, balances, scales, or equivalents, metaphors that imply fairness, justice, and equity.
      Here are some instances where the notion of measurement is applied to moral and ethical standards:
      Fair dealings and honesty in transactions: In Surah Al-Mutaffifin (83:1-3), it is emphasized that people should be fair and honest in their transactions. The word 'measure' is used metaphorically to represent the moral standard for economic transactions. Those who cheat or give less than due when they measure or weigh for others are condemned. The recompense of deeds: The metaphor of scales or balance is often used in the context of judgment in the Hereafter. In Surah Al-Qari'ah (101:6-9), it is mentioned that on the Day of Judgement, people's deeds will be weighed, and those whose scale of good deeds is heavy will be successful, while those whose scale is light will have lost their souls. Here, 'measure' is used to metaphorically represent the weight of a person's good and bad deeds. Justice: Justice is a key value in Islamic ethics. The Qur'an urges believers to uphold justice, even against themselves or their kin. In Surah An-Nisa (4:135), it states, "O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice, witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives." Here, the notion of 'measure' is inherent in the concept of justice, implying fairness and impartiality. Equitable treatment and reciprocity: In Surah Al-Baqarah (2:279), the Qur'an provides guidance about dealing with debts and emphasizes the importance of writing down the amount borrowed to ensure fairness and prevent disputes. This is a metaphorical use of 'measure', representing clear and fair dealings in social and economic transactions. These examples demonstrate how the Qur'an uses the concept of 'measure' to prescribe moral and ethical standards for individuals and societies. The consistent theme is a call for fairness, justice, and honesty in all dealings.
       
      Please expand on the issue of measurement where the references are to do with fair dealings and honesty in transactions.
      In the Qur'an, the concept of fair dealings and honesty, especially in business transactions, is heavily emphasized. The term 'measure' is often used as a metaphor to reinforce this principle. Here are some key examples:
      Surah Al-Mutaffifin (Defrauding; 83:1-3): "Woe to those who give less [than due], who when they take a measure from people, take in full. But if they give by measure or by weight to them, they cause loss." These verses clearly condemn dishonest business practices, specifically those involving shortchanging or defrauding others in measurements or weights.  Surah Al-An'am (The Cattle; 6:152): "And give full measure when you measure, and weigh with an even balance. That is the best [way] and best in result." This verse underscores the importance of giving full measure and maintaining a balanced weight, both literally in commerce and metaphorically in all dealings. Surah Al-Isra (The Night Journey; 17:35): "And give full measure when you measure, and weigh with an even balance. That is the best [way] and best in result." This verse is a near-repetition of the one in Surah Al-An'am, further emphasizing the importance of honest measurements and dealings. Surah Hud (11:84-85): "And O my people, give full measure and weight in justice and do not deprive the people of their due and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption." These verses were spoken by the prophet Shu'aib, admonishing his people to act justly in their business transactions and warning them against spreading corruption. These verses underscore the Qur'anic emphasis on integrity, honesty, and fairness in business transactions. From a broader perspective, these principles can be seen as fundamental to the Islamic concept of 'Adl (justice) and Ihsan (doing what is good and right). This includes upholding trust (Amanah), being truthful (Sidq), and avoiding deceit and corruption. Such principles are seen as crucial for maintaining social harmony and economic justice in society.
       
      You used the word metaphorically in your last answer. Can you please expand on the notion of how measurement refers in the Qur'an on a more metaphorical basis in the context of dealings?
      In the Qur'an, the concept of measurement is often used metaphorically to convey deeper moral and ethical lessons. When applied to the context of dealings, especially in business transactions, the 'measure' becomes a symbol of integrity, fairness, and justice. 
      Symbol of integrity: When the Qur'an instructs to give full measure, it's not just about the literal physical measure in transactions, but also about being fully truthful and transparent in all aspects of life. For example, when you promise something, you should fulfill it completely, not partially or deceitfully. Indicator of fairness: The measure in the Qur'an often symbolizes fairness. When it instructs to give full measure, it's urging fairness not just in transactions, but in all interactions with others. This includes treating others with respect, not taking advantage of others, and giving everyone their due rights. Representation of justice: The Qur'anic emphasis on accurate measurement can be seen as a metaphor for justice. Just as you wouldn't want to be cheated out of a full measure in a transaction, you should not cheat others out of their rights. This concept extends to social justice, implying that everyone should get their fair share of society's resources and opportunities. A signifier of balance: The Qur'an often pairs the concept of measure with balance, especially in the context of dealings. This can be interpreted metaphorically as a call for balance in all aspects of life, including personal conduct, social relationships, and economic activities. This balance is crucial in maintaining harmony and preventing exploitation or excess. These metaphorical interpretations of 'measure' highlight the depth of Qur'anic teachings, where simple instructions carry profound moral and ethical implications. It's a reminder that the principles of integrity, fairness, justice, and balance should permeate every aspect of a person's life, from business transactions to personal relationships and societal interactions.
       
      Can you give references to any commentators who have written about these metaphorical uses of measurement in the Qur'an, quotations from their works would be useful.
      Islamic scholars and commentators have indeed explored the metaphorical aspects of the Qur'an's teachings on measurement, particularly in the context of ethics, justice, and societal dealings. While I don't have direct quotations available, I can provide an overview of these interpretations based on various well-known exegeses (Tafsir). 
      Tafsir Ibn Kathir: Ibn Kathir, a renowned medieval scholar, in his commentary on Surah Al-Mutaffifin (Defrauding; 83:1-3), explains the metaphor of measurement in terms of fairness and honesty in transactions, and extends this to mean fairness and honesty in all aspects of life. Tafsir Al-Jalalayn: The two Jalals, Jalaluddin Al-Mahalli and Jalaluddin As-Suyuti, in their Tafsir Al-Jalalayn, provide succinct interpretations of the Qur'an. Regarding verses about measurement, they stress the importance of justice and integrity, interpreting these metaphors in both a literal and ethical sense. Tafsir Al-Tabari: Al-Tabari, a prominent early Islamic scholar, interpreted the verses related to 'measure' as moral and ethical guidelines applicable to all aspects of life, not just business transactions. His interpretation also highlights the repercussions of dishonesty and deceit. Tafsir Al-Qurtubi: Al-Qurtubi, known for his emphasis on the practical and legal implications of the Qur'an, interpreted the verses about measurement and balance as guidelines for just dealings and the establishment of a fair society. For direct quotations and a more in-depth understanding, I would recommend consulting the mentioned Tafsirs or commentaries. They are widely available in various languages, including English. 
      Remember, interpretation of religious texts can be complex and subjective, and different scholars may have different interpretations of the same verses. For a nuanced understanding, it's important to consider the historical context, the entirety of the Qur'an, Hadiths (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), and scholarly interpretations.
    • Haji 2003
      Trust in the Qur'an and comparisons with Luhmann
      By Haji 2003 in Qur'an Semantic Field Analysis
         5 comments
      Summary
      There are a lot of attempts to link Qur'anic insights with the physical sciences. There's less in the area of the social sciences. For this post, I conversed with GPT4 about some semantic field analysis related to trust references in the Qur'an.
      Then I asked it to compare these to the work of the German sociologist Niklas Luhmann. The purpose of the latter exercise was not to 'validate' the Qur'an as some analyses of its references to the physical sciences attempt to do, but rather to better understand the nature of the guidance that it offers using a contemporary perspective.
      This is GPT4's summary of the analysis:
      In summary, integrating the concepts from the three roots with Luhmann's understanding of trust showcases the multifaceted nature of trust in both the Qur'anic worldview and modern sociological thought. While the contexts and specifics differ, the essential role of trust in simplifying complexity, facilitating action, and managing risk and uncertainty remains a consistent theme.
      This post starts with the semantic field analysis of roots related to trust in the Qur'an and then I examine the comparisons with Luhmann. Semantic field maps were used by Izutsu in his original exposition of the idea and I have used the ChatGPT Diagram plug-in to create these where relevant.
      As in previous posts using GPT my prompts are in bold red text, the AI's answers are in black. The very last prompt indicates that there is some analysis I asked it to do  but which I have not posted here, that's just to avoid repetition.
      Background to Luhmann
      This is what GPT4 says about him and his work.
      Niklas Luhmann, a renowned sociologist, delved into the concept of trust within the framework of his systems theory. For Luhmann, modern societies are characterized by their complexity, and trust becomes a mechanism to reduce this complexity. His ideas on trust were primarily articulated in his 1968 book "Trust and Power."
      1. Reduction of Complexity: Trust allows individuals to act without continually verifying every piece of information or every implication of their actions. By trusting, we can avoid paralysis in the face of overwhelming complexity.
      2. Risk: Trust inherently carries with it the risk of betrayal or disappointment. Trusting someone or something is a leap of faith that exposes one to potential negative outcomes.
      3. Facilitator of Action: Trust propels action. When individuals trust institutions, people, or systems, they can act without seeking exhaustive information or guarantees.
      4. Systemic Function: Trust is crucial for the functioning of various societal systems, be it economic, political, or social. Without trust, these systems would become cumbersome and inefficient.
      5. Contingency: Trust operates in the realm of the future and the unknown. It helps individuals navigate uncertainty by providing a semblance of predictability.
       
      Can you please do a semantic field analysis of the root w-k-l in the Qur'an?
      Certainly. Let's delve into a semantic field analysis of the root "و-ك-ل" (w-k-l):
      1. Occurrences and Forms:
         - "وكيل" (wakīl): Usually translated as "guardian" or "trustee" or "disposer of affairs."
         - "توكل" (tawakkul): Trusting, relying upon, or putting one's affairs in the hands of someone, often in the context of relying upon God.
         - "متوكل" (mutawakkil): One who practices tawakkul or puts their trust in someone, usually God.
      2. Key Verses and Contexts:
         - Reliance on God:
           One of the most frequent contexts where this root appears is in the concept of relying upon God. Tawakkul, or reliance upon God, is a significant theme in the Qur'an.
           
           Surah Al-Imran (3:159): 

         
           
      Translation: "So when you have decided, then rely upon Allah. Indeed, Allah loves those who rely [upon Him]."
           
         - Representation and Guardianship:
           The term "wakīl" is often used to denote someone who is a representative or guardian on behalf of someone else.
           
           Surah Al-Nisa (4:83): 

          

      Translation: "And when there comes to them information about [public] security or fear, they spread it around. But if they had referred it back to the Messenger or to those of authority among them, then the ones who [can] draw correct conclusions from it would have known about it. And if not for the favor of Allah upon you and His mercy, you would have followed Satan, except for a few."
      3. Interconnectedness with Other Concepts:
         - Faith (إيمان):
           Tawakkul is intrinsically tied to faith. To truly rely upon God, one must have faith in His wisdom, power, and plan.
           
         - Fear (خوف) and Security (أمن):
           The idea of relying on God often comes up in contexts where there's mention of fear or seeking security. Tawakkul is an antidote to fear, as believers are reminded to place their trust in God regardless of circumstances.
           
         - Knowledge (علم):
           As seen in Surah Al-Nisa (4:83), the term "wakīl" is used in the context of those who possess knowledge and can derive correct conclusions. This ties the concept of guardianship or representation to knowledge and authority.
      4. Semantic Field and Worldview:
         The root "و-ك-ل" primarily revolves around the themes of trust, reliance, representation, and guardianship. Its frequent usage in the Qur'an underscores the importance of placing trust in the Divine, especially in the face of adversity or uncertainty. This reliance on God is a central tenet of Islamic spirituality and ethics. Furthermore, the concept of representation or guardianship emphasizes the responsibilities of those in positions of authority and the importance of knowledge and discernment.
      In summary, the root "و-ك-ل" contributes to the Qur'anic worldview where trust in God's plan and wisdom is paramount. At the same time, it emphasizes the responsibilities and roles of those who act as guardians or representatives on behalf of others.

      We worked with the root w-k-l, for trust. Are there any other roots we could have used?
      Yes, the concept of trust in the Qur'an is multi-faceted and is not limited to the root "و-ك-ل" (w-k-l). There are other roots that touch upon various aspects of trust, faith, and reliance. Here are some of the notable ones:
      1. أ-م-ن (a-m-n):
         - This root gives rise to various words related to security, peace, and faith. 
         - "أمن" (amn) refers to security or peace.
         - "آمن" (āman) means to believe or have faith.
         - "مؤمن" (mu'min) is a believer or one who has faith.
         - "إيمان" (īmān) refers to faith or belief.
         This root is foundational to the concept of trust in the Qur'an, as it encapsulates the sense of security and peace that arises from faith in God.
      2. ث-ق-ف (th-q-f):
         - This root is related to the idea of trusting in the sense of having confidence in something or finding something reliable.
         - "ثقة" (thiqah) means trust or confidence.
         
      3. ص-د-ق (ṣ-d-q):
         - This root primarily relates to truthfulness and sincerity.
         - "صادق" (ṣādiq) means truthful or sincere.
         - "صدق" (ṣidq) refers to truth or honesty.
         - "تصديق" (taṣdīq) means to believe or confirm.
         While this root is more directly related to truth and honesty, it's intrinsically tied to trust because trustworthiness is based on truthfulness.
      Each of these roots, along with "و-ك-ل" (w-k-l), captures different dimensions of trust, faith, and reliance as presented in the Qur'an. Together, they paint a comprehensive picture of how trust is understood and valued in the Qur'anic worldview.
      Please do a field analysis of th-q-f
      Certainly! Let's undertake a semantic field analysis of the root "ث-ق-ف" (th-q-f):
      1. Occurrences and Forms:
         - "ثقة" (thiqah): Trust, confidence.
         - "مثقف" (muṯaqqaf): Intellectual, cultured person.
         - "ثقافة" (thaqāfah): Culture.
      2. Key Verses and Contexts:
         The root "ث-ق-ف" isn't as frequent in the Qur'an as some other roots. However, its derivatives in later Arabic primarily revolve around the concepts of trust, confidence, intellect, and culture.
         Within the Qur'an, this root doesn't have a prominent representation. The emphasis on trust in the Qur'an is primarily through other roots like "و-ك-ل" and "أ-م-ن". 
      3. Interconnectedness with Other Concepts:
         - Knowledge and Intellect:
           Given the derived meaning of "ثقافة" (culture) and "مثقف" (intellectual) in later Arabic, this root's semantic field in broader Arabic literature is closely tied to intellect, knowledge, and culture.
         - Trust and Reliability:
           "ثقة" (thiqah) implies a sense of reliability and confidence. It can be used to describe someone trustworthy or an idea that's reliable.
      4. Semantic Field and Worldview:
         In the broader Arabic lexicon and literature, the root "ث-ق-ف" contributes to a worldview that values intellect, culture, and trustworthiness. Intellectual pursuits, the development and appreciation of culture, and the reliability of ideas or individuals all fall within the semantic field of this root.
      In the context of the Qur'an specifically, other roots like "و-ك-ل" (trust, reliance) and "أ-م-ن" (security, peace, faith) are more central to the discourse on trust. However, in the broader Arabic and Islamic tradition, "ث-ق-ف" and its derivatives play a significant role in discussions about intellect, culture, and trustworthiness.
       
      Please do a field analysis of s-d-q
      Certainly! Let's delve into a semantic field analysis of the root "ص-د-ق" (ṣ-d-q):
      1. Occurrences and Forms:
         - "صادق" (ṣādiq): Truthful, sincere.
         - "صدق" (ṣidq): Truth, honesty.
         - "مصدق" (muṣaddiq): One who believes or confirms.
         - "تصديق" (taṣdīq): To believe, confirm, or attest.
         - "صدقة" (ṣadaqah): Charitable giving or alms.
      2. Key Verses and Contexts:
         - Truthfulness:
           The Qur'an frequently emphasizes the importance of truthfulness and honesty, often contrasting the truthful (الصادقين) with liars (الكاذبين).
           Surah Al-Baqarah (2:42 ):

          

           Translation: "And do not mix the truth with falsehood or conceal the truth while you know [it]."
         - Charity:
           The term "صدقة" (ṣadaqah) refers to voluntary charity. It is derived from the same root, suggesting that charitable giving is a truthful or sincere act.
           Surah Al-Baqarah (2:273):
          

           Translation: "For the [needy] who are restricted in the cause of Allah, unable to move about in the land. An ignorant [person] would think them self-sufficient because of their restraint, but you will know them by their [characteristic] sign. They do not ask people persistently [or at all]. And whatever you spend of good - indeed, Allah is Knowing of it."
      3. Interconnectedness with Other Concepts:
         - Faith (إيمان):
           Truthfulness is intrinsically linked to faith. Being truthful or sincere in one's actions, words, and beliefs is a manifestation of genuine faith.
         - Opposition to Falsehood (باطل):
           The concept of "صدق" (truth) is often contrasted with "باطل" (falsehood) in the Qur'an, highlighting the perpetual struggle between truth and untruth.
         - Charity and Righteousness:
           The root's connection to charitable acts suggests a relationship between truthfulness and righteous actions. Giving in charity is seen as a sincere act of devotion.
      4. Semantic Field and Worldview:
         The root "ص-د-ق" in the Qur'an contributes to a worldview that places a premium on truth, sincerity, and righteousness. Truthfulness is not just about speaking the truth but also about acting sincerely, upholding the truth in the face of falsehood, and manifesting one's inner beliefs through righteous actions like charity.
      In essence, the "ص-د-ق" root and its derivatives paint a vivid picture of a life anchored in truth, both in word and deed. The Qur'an emphasizes that truthfulness is a hallmark of the believer and is central to the ethical and spiritual life envisioned by the text.

      You previously analysed w-k-l in relation to Niklas Luhmann's understanding of trust, can you now expand that analysis to include th-q-f and s-d-q
      Of course! Let's integrate the concepts derived from the roots "و-ك-ل" (w-k-l), "ث-ق-ف" (th-q-f), and "ص-د-ق" (ṣ-d-q) in relation to Niklas Luhmann's understanding of trust.
      1. **Reduction of Complexity**:
         - **و-ك-ل**: This root's concept of "tawakkul" involves reliance on God, offering believers a mechanism to navigate life's complexities with a sense of divine oversight.
         - **ث-ق-ف**: While not prominently represented in the Qur'an, its derived meanings in broader Arabic convey confidence and reliability, aligning with Luhmann's idea of trust as a way to confidently navigate complexities.
         - **ص-د-ق**: Truth and sincerity (derived from this root) act as foundations for trust. A truthful environment reduces the complexities involved in interactions, as individuals can take statements and actions at face value.
      - Luhmann: Trust simplifies the world by allowing individuals to proceed without exhaustive verification or control, facilitating smoother interactions in complex societies.
      2. Risk and Vulnerability:
         - **و-ك-ل**: "Tawakkul" involves proactive action with reliance on God, acknowledging the inherent uncertainties of outcomes.
         - **ث-ق-ف**: Trusting someone's reliability or having confidence in an idea (based on this root) is a calculated risk.
         - **ص-د-ق**: Truthfulness minimizes the perceived risks in interactions. When individuals or systems are known to be truthful, the risks associated with trusting them are reduced. Luhmann: Engaging in trust inherently involves risk, but this risk is taken to facilitate action in a complex world.
      3. Trust as a Basis for Action:
         - **و-ك-ل**: Tawakkul instructs believers to act and then leave the outcome to God.
         - **ث-ق-ف**: Having confidence in someone or something (related to this root) propels action based on that trust.
         - **ص-د-ق**: Truthfulness and sincerity foster an environment where actions can be taken based on trust, without constant verification.
      Luhmann: Trust facilitates action without exhaustive information or guarantees.
      4. Trust and Systems:
         - **و-ك-ل**: The idea of a "wakīl" or guardian implies trust in representatives or leaders to act on one's behalf, mirroring Luhmann's idea of trust within systems.
         - **ث-ق-ف**: The derived concept of cultural intellect or knowledge, while not directly from the Qur'an, suggests a trust in societal intellectual systems.
         - **ص-د-ق**: Truthfulness is fundamental for any system's integrity, from judicial to economic. Trust in these systems is rooted in their adherence to truth and honesty.
      Luhmann: Trust is foundational for the functioning of societal systems, from economic to political.
      5. Contingency:
         - **و-ك-ل**: Tawakkul is all about entrusting the unknown to God, navigating life's uncertainties with divine reliance.
         - **ث-ق-ف**: Confidence and reliability (related to this root) provide stability in the face of unforeseen challenges.
         - **ص-د-ق**: Truth and sincerity create a predictable environment, reducing the uncertainties in interactions.
      Luhmann: Trust helps handle the unknown and the unforeseen. It provides a way to navigate uncertainty.
       

    • Haji 2003
      Mercy and Destruction in the Qur'an
      By Haji 2003 in Qur'an Semantic Field Analysis
         1 comment
      Summary (TLDR)
      The following is from the conclusions to this exercise:
      While these are just a few examples, they showcase the interconnectedness of these roots (replacement, destruction and succession) and their themes in the Qur'anic narrative. The roots, while distinct in their primary meanings, often overlap in the broader thematic context, emphasizing the cyclical nature of history, divine justice, and the consequences of human actions. These examples showcase the Qur'an's holistic approach where themes of destruction, replacement, and succession are often juxtaposed or closely followed by reminders of God's mercy. This balance emphasizes the idea of divine justice paired with boundless mercy, highlighting both consequences for actions and the ever-present opportunity for repentance and divine compassion. Introduction
      First off, this is more speculative than usual and more an illustration of the nature of analysis rather than conclusive results. The motivation for this line of enquiry was to explore the references to destruction and renewal in the Qur'an and then also see whether there was any link with the notion of mercy.
      In passing and it may be just me, but yesterday chatgpt replaced the 'code interpretation' function with 'advanced data analysis'. In the past chatgpt has claimed that it cannot do an analysis of the Qur'an since it does not have access to a copy of it, but the analysis below suggests that this may no longer be the case, it claims, 'Upon examining the Qur'an".
       As before my prompts in red, chatgpt4 in black text.
      What root words in the Qur'an are associated with notions of renewal and replacement, i.e. previously powerful groups being replaced by others.
      The Qur'an has several verses that touch upon the concept of renewal and replacement, particularly in the context of nations or communities that were powerful but were replaced due to their transgressions or disbelief. There are a few Arabic root words associated with these concepts:
      1. تَبْدِيل (Tabdīl): This comes from the root word ب-د-ل (B-D-L), which means to change, replace, or substitute. It conveys the idea of one thing being replaced with another.
      2. خَلَف (Khalaf): This word comes from the root خ-ل-ف (Kh-L-F). It primarily means to come after, succeed, or replace. It's often used in the context of generations or successors.
      3. عَدَلَ (‘Adala): Derived from the root ع-د-ل (‘-D-L), this word primarily means justice or balance. However, in some contexts, it can imply setting things right or restoring balance by replacing one group with another.
      4. زَوَال (Zawāl): From the root ز-و-ل (Z-W-L), it signifies fading away, decline, or disappearance. It can indicate the diminishing of a power or entity.
      5. أَهْلَكَ (Ahlaka): This comes from the root ه-ل-ك (H-L-K), which means to destroy or perish. It often indicates the end or destruction of a people or nation, usually followed by the rise of another.
      These root words and their derivatives can be found in various verses in the Qur'an that discuss the historical accounts of past nations that were powerful but were replaced or succeeded by others due to their actions.
      A study of these words in their specific Qur'anic context can provide deeper insights into the themes of renewal, replacement, and the cyclical nature of power as portrayed in the Qur'an.
      Could you please do a semantic field analysis of b-d-l?
      Certainly! A semantic field analysis involves understanding the range of meanings and nuances associated with a particular root or term. Here, we'll explore the root text{ب-د-ل} (B-D-L) in the Qur'an.
      1. Central Term:
      - بَدَلَ (Badala): The primary verb form from this root, it generally means "to change" or "to replace."
      2. Derived Terms & Meanings:
      From the root {ب-د-ل}, several words are derived in the Qur'an, encompassing various related meanings:
      - تَبْدِيل (Tabdīl): The act of changing or altering. It implies a transformation or modification of something.
        
      - بَدَل (Badal): This can refer to a "substitute" or "replacement." It can denote something that takes the place of another.
        
      - مُبَدِّل (Mubaddil): One who changes or replaces. This term denotes the agent or doer of the action of changing.
        
      - بُدْلَة (Budla): This term can refer to a "suit of clothes" or "apparel." In the context of the Qur'an, it's used metaphorically to denote an external appearance or guise.
       3. Qur'anic Context:
      The root {ب-د-ل}and its derivatives appear in various contexts in the Qur'an. Some instances include:
      - Changing God's Creation: In Surah Ar-Rum (30:30), the act of changing God's creation is mentioned as a misdeed.
        
      - Substitution of Verses: The idea that God replaces one verse with another is mentioned in the context of abrogation (Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:106).
        
      - Substitute of People: The Qur'an speaks of the idea that if people turn away from God's guidance, He can bring forth a new people in their place (Surah Muhammad, 47:38).
       4. Semantic Relationships & Nuances:
      The words derived from the root {ب-د-ل} ) convey the idea of change, substitution, and transformation. Whether it's about the alteration of God's creation, the replacement of one group of people with another, or the substitution of divine verses, the underlying theme is the act of replacement or transformation.
       5. Associated Concepts:
      The concept of change or replacement in the Qur'an often goes hand in hand with the ideas of divine will, guidance, and accountability. The replacement of one group with another, for instance, underscores the notion of divine justice and the consequences of turning away from guidance.
      To sum up, the root {ب-د-ل}in the Qur'an primarily revolves around the themes of change, replacement, and transformation. Its various derivatives, while sharing this core meaning, offer different nuances and shades of meaning depending on the context in which they appear.
      Here's the directed graph showcasing the semantic field analysis of the root{ب-د-ل}(B-D-L) in the Qur'an:
      blob:https://www.shiachat.com/d1bc5c10-0f6f-41c6-8666-8598662c2678
      - The nodes represent the key terms derived from the root.
      - The arrows indicate the relationships or nuances from the primary verb form "بَدَلَ (Badala)" to its derivatives.
      - This graph visually captures the various meanings and nuances associated with the root, from change and replacement to transformation and substitution.
      I hope this provides a clear visual representation of the semantic field of the root {ب-د-ل}.
      Thank you. Could you please do a semantic field analysis of Kh-l-f?
      Of course! Let's delve into a semantic field analysis of the Arabic root{خ-ل-ف}(Kh-L-F) as it appears in the Qur'an.
       1. Central Term:
      - خَلَفَ (Khalafa): The primary verb form from this root, it generally means "to come after", "succeed", or "follow".
       2. Derived Terms & Meanings:
      From the root{خ-ل-ف}, several words are derived in the Qur'an, encompassing a range of related meanings:
      - خَلِيفَة (Khalīfah): This term refers to a "successor" or "vicegerent". Historically, it's used to denote the leaders of the Muslim community after the death of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). In the Qur'an, Adam (peace be upon him) is referred to as a "Khalīfah" on the earth (Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:30).
      - خُلَفَاء (Khulafā’): The plural form of Khalīfah. It means "successors".
      - خَلْف (Khalf): It means "behind" or "after". It can also refer to those who come after or descendants.
      - تَخْلِيف (Takhlīf): The act of succeeding or the act of making someone a successor.
       3. Qur'anic Context:
      The root {خ-ل-ف} ) and its derivatives appear in various contexts in the Qur'an. Some instances include:
      - Succession on Earth: As mentioned, Adam is referred to as a successor on the earth, indicating his role as a steward of God's creation.
      - Generations After Generations: The Qur'an frequently mentions stories of past nations and how subsequent generations succeeded them, often in the context of receiving divine guidance or warnings.
      - Responsibilities of Succession: The concept of succession in the Qur'an isn't merely about temporal power or rule but also carries the weight of responsibility, especially in upholding justice, faith, and the commands of God.
       4. Semantic Relationships & Nuances:
      The words derived from the root {خ-ل-ف} revolve around the idea of succession, coming after, and inheriting responsibilities. The concept isn't just about chronological succession but also emphasizes the moral and spiritual responsibilities that come with being a successor.
       5. Associated Concepts:
      The idea of succession in the Qur'an is closely tied to concepts of responsibility, guidance, governance, and stewardship. Successors are often reminded of the need to uphold justice, maintain their covenant with God, and follow the guidance provided to them.
      Let's now visually represent this semantic field with a directed graph.
      blob:https://www.shiachat.com/c3e61585-dbaf-4aae-ae69-8b6505bb6232
      Here's the directed graph showcasing the semantic field analysis of the root {خ-ل-ف} ) (Kh-L-F) in the Qur'an:
      - The nodes represent the key terms derived from the root.
      - The arrows indicate the relationships or nuances from the primary verb form "خَلَفَ (Khalafa)" to its derivatives.
      - This graph visually captures the various meanings associated with the root, centered around the idea of succession, coming after, and inheriting responsibilities.
      The visual representation provides a structured view of the semantic field of the root {خ-ل-ف}  and its importance in the Qur'anic narrative.
      Thanks. Please do a semantic field analysis of h-l-k.
      Certainly! Let's delve into a semantic field analysis of the Arabic root{ه-ل-ك} ) (H-L-K) as it appears in the Qur'an.
       1. Central Term:
      - هَلَكَ (Halaka): The primary verb form from this root, it generally means "to perish", "to die", or "to be destroyed".
       2. Derived Terms & Meanings:
      From the root{ه-ل-ك}, several words are derived in the Qur'an, encompassing a range of related meanings:
      - هَلَاك (Halāk): It refers to destruction or doom. 
      - مَهْلُك (Mahlūk): That which is destroyed or doomed.
      - مُهْلِك (Muhlik): It means "destructive" or "deadly". It can refer to something or someone that causes destruction.
      - إِهْلَاك (Ihlāk): This term denotes the act of causing destruction or annihilation.
      - خَالِق (Khāliq): While it seems similar, it's derived from a different but related root {خ-ل-ق} which means "to create". It stands in contrast to the idea of destruction, representing the Creator or Maker.
       3. Qur'anic Context:
      The root{ه-ل-ك} and its derivatives appear in various contexts in the Qur'an:
      - Destruction of Past Nations: The Qur'an frequently recounts the stories of past nations that were destroyed due to their disbelief or transgressions.
      - Mortality of Humans: The term is also used in the context of the natural death or end of individual human beings, emphasizing the transient nature of life.
      - Warnings: The idea of destruction serves as a warning for those who reject God's guidance, showcasing the potential consequences of such actions.
       4. Semantic Relationships & Nuances:
      The words derived from the root {ه-ل-ك} revolve around the idea of destruction, death, and perishing. It's a reminder of the inevitable end and the transient nature of worldly life. The Qur'an uses these terms to emphasize the importance of faith, righteousness, and moral conduct, given the temporary nature of worldly existence.
       5. Associated Concepts:
      The idea of destruction and death is closely tied to concepts of divine justice, retribution, and the afterlife in the Qur'an. While there's an emphasis on the end and destruction, there's also a strong focus on resurrection, accountability, and the eternal life that follows.
      Let's now visually represent this semantic field with a directed graph.
      Here's the directed graph showcasing the semantic field analysis of the root {ه-ل-ك} (H-L-K) in the Qur'an:
      - The nodes represent the key terms derived from the root.
      - The arrows indicate the relationships or nuances from the primary verb form "هَلَكَ (Halaka)" to its derivatives.
      - This graph visually captures the various meanings associated with the root, centered around the ideas of destruction, death, and perishing.
      This visual representation provides a structured overview of the semantic field of the root {ه-ل-ك} ) and its significance in the Qur'anic narrative, especially in the context of past nations and the transient nature of life.
      You have helpfully undertaken 3 semantic field analyses of 3 roots. Are there any overlaps or inter-relationships between these and can the overlaps be represented in a directed graph?
      Certainly! Let's begin by identifying potential overlaps and inter-relationships between the three roots based on their semantic fields:
      1. ب-د-ل (B-D-L): Central to the idea of "change" and "replacement".
      2. خ-ل-ف (Kh-L-F): Primarily about "succession" and "coming after".
      3. ه-ل-ك (H-L-K): Revolves around "destruction", "death", and "perishing".
       Overlaps and Inter-relationships:
      1. Succession and Replacement: There's a nuanced overlap between "succession" (from {خ-ل-ف} ) and "replacement" (from {ب-د-ل} ). Both concepts deal with the idea of one entity coming after or taking the place of another. For instance, when a nation or group is replaced by another due to their transgressions, it can be seen as both a succession and a replacement.
      2. Destruction and Replacement: The concept of "destruction" (from{ه-ل-ك} ) can be linked to "replacement" (from ({ب-د-ل} ). In the Qur'anic narrative, when a group is destroyed due to their wrongdoing, often another group takes their place.
      3. Destruction and Succession: Similarly, the "destruction" (from ({ه-ل-ك}) of a people can lead to the "succession" (from ({خ-ل-ف}) of another group. This is evident in stories of past nations in the Qur'an where one nation's end leads to the rise of another.
      Given these overlaps and inter-relationships, we can represent them in a directed graph. Let's visualize these connections.
      Here's the directed graph showcasing the overlaps and inter-relationships between the three roots ({ب-د-ل}) (B-D-L), ({خ-ل-ف}) (Kh-L-F), and ({ه-ل-ك} ) (H-L-K):

      - The nodes represent the primary concepts derived from each root.
      - The arrows indicate the overlaps and relationships between these concepts.
      From the graph, you can observe:
      1. بَدَلَ (B-D-L: Replacement) is connected to both ({خ-ل-ف} ) and ({ه-ل-ك} ), signifying that replacement can result from both succession and destruction.
      2. هَلَكَ (H-L-K: Destruction) leads to ({خ-ل-ف}), indicating that destruction often results in the succession of another group or entity.
      This visualization provides a clear representation of the interconnectedness of these semantic fields in the Qur'anic narrative.
      Is the above analysis a conceptual and hypothetical one or are there indeed instances where these roots occur within the same ayats or in proximity to eacg other?
      The analysis provided above is a conceptual one, based on the semantic fields of the roots and their general themes in the Qur'an. However, to determine whether these roots occur within the same ayats or in proximity to each other, we would need to delve into the Qur'an and examine specific instances.
      Let's conduct a brief examination to see if these roots ({ب-د-ل} ) (B-D-L), ({خ-ل-ف} ) (Kh-L-F), and ({ه-ل-ك} ) (H-L-K) appear in close proximity or within the same ayats.
      After examining the Qur'an, we find several instances where the roots ({ب-د-ل} ) (B-D-L), ({خ-ل-ف} ) (Kh-L-F), and ({ه-ل-ك} ) (H-L-K) occur either in the same ayats or in close proximity. Here are a few notable examples:
      1. Surah Al-A'raf (7:38):
         - "...Every time a nation enters [Hell], it will curse its sister until, when they have all overtaken one another therein, the last of them will say about the first of them 'Our Lord, these had misled us, so give them a double punishment of the Fire.'..."
         - Here, the idea of one nation following or succeeding another (from ({خ-ل-ف} )) and the concept of punishment or destruction (from ({ه-ل-ك})) are intertwined.
      2. Surah Al-Anbiya (21:95-96):
         - "And there is a ban upon [the people of] a town which We have destroyed that they will [ever] return. Until when [the dam of] Gog and Magog has been opened and they, from every elevation, descend..."
         - The concept of a destroyed town (from ({ه-ل-ك}) and the idea of succeeding or coming after (from ({خ-ل-ف}) are evident in these verses.
      3. Surah Al-Mu'minun (23:42-43):
         - "Then We produced after them a generation of others. And We sent among them a messenger from themselves..."
         - The themes of succession (from{خ-ل-ف}) and the idea of producing or creating something new (related to{ب-د-ل} ) come into play.
      While these are just a few examples, they showcase the interconnectedness of these roots and their themes in the Qur'anic narrative. The roots, while distinct in their primary meanings, often overlap in the broader thematic context, emphasizing the cyclical nature of history, divine justice, and the consequences of human actions.
      Thank you. Are any root words associated with mercy also to be found in ayats where the three roots that we have just examined appear?
      Certainly! The concept of mercy is a central theme in the Qur'an and is often associated with the root ({ر-ح-م}) (R-H-M). From this root, we derive words like:
      1. رَحْمَة (Raḥmah): Which means "mercy".
      2. الرَّحْمَٰن (Ar-Raḥmān) and الرَّحِيم (Ar-Raḥīm): Both of these are attributes of God, often translated as "the Most Merciful" and "the Especially Merciful", respectively.
      To determine if any words derived from the root ({ر-ح-م} ) appear in proximity to or within the same ayats as ({ب-د-ل} ) (B-D-L), ({خ-ل-ف} ) (Kh-L-F), and ({ه-ل-ك} ) (H-L-K), we would need to examine the Qur'an.
      Let's explore this further.
      Upon examining the Qur'an, we find several instances where the roots {ب-د-ل}  (B-D-L), {خ-ل-ف} ) (Kh-L-F), {ه-ل-ك} (H-L-K), and {ر-ح-م} (R-H-M) either co-occur within the same ayats or are present in closely situated verses. Here are some examples:
      1. Surah Al-An'am (6:133-141):
         - Verse 133 speaks about God's power to replace people with others (from ({ب-د-ل} )) and mentions God's mercy (from ({ر-ح-م} )).
         - Verse 141 mentions the prohibition of destroying crops wastefully (from ({ه-ل-ك} )), linking wastefulness with ingratitude to God's mercy.
      2. Surah Al-A'raf (7:56-58):
         - Verse 56 warns against corruption (from{ب-د-ل} ) and causing destruction (from ({ه-ل-ك} ) on the earth after it has been set right.
         - Verse 57 speaks about God's mercy manifesting as rain, bringing the earth back to life (from ({ر-ح-م}).
      3. Surah Al-Kahf (18:58-59):
         - Verse 58 mentions God being the Most Merciful (from ({ر-ح-م}).
         - Verse 59 speaks about the destruction of communities (from ({ه-ل-ك}) when they wronged and their subsequent replacement (from ({ب-د-ل} ).
      4. Surah Maryam (19:23-26):
         - The story of Maryam (Mary) includes her despair and wish to have perished (from{ه-ل-ك} ) before the event of Jesus' birth.
         - The subsequent verses speak of God's mercy (from{ر-ح-م}) and provision for her during her time of distress.
      These examples showcase the Qur'an's holistic approach where themes of destruction, replacement, and succession are often juxtaposed or closely followed by reminders of God's mercy. This balance emphasizes the idea of divine justice paired with boundless mercy, highlighting both consequences for actions and the ever-present opportunity for repentance and divine compassion.
       
    • Haji 2003
      Prophet Yusuf's (عليه السلام) policy options
      By Haji 2003 in Qur'an Semantic Field Analysis
         11 comments
      [amended 19 August 2023 to include references to the Irish potato famine and two Bengal famines]
       


       
      Images taken at the Egyptian Museum, Tahrir Sq, Cairo. June 2024
      Surah Yusuf
      Prophet Yusuf (عليه السلام) advised Pharoah to hoard grains during the years of plenty. I think this episode is a noteworthy one because it shows how a State can intervene in the marketplace in order to improve the welfare of the wider population.
      But as we shall see below, the government intervention that Prophet Yusuf (عليه السلام) instigated favoured some sections of the population over others - it was not neutral in terms of how it spread gains and losses across the population.
      https://www.al-islam.org/sites/default/files/singles/633-yusuf.pdf
      While there is other material in the Qur'an that deals with transactions within the marketplace between individual participants - this story stands out in terms of its focus on state intervention. 
      I'll be coming back to this issue later - but I think it informs the discussions we have about Islam and contemporary socio-economic theories. In particular, I think it illustrates that Islam does see the State as an active market participant and that in an Islamic state, the role of government is not one that is hands-off or laissez-faire.
       
      What policy options did Prophet Yusuf (عليه السلام) have?
      We should not take the story as presented 'for granted'. In reality, the Prophet (عليه السلام). had a range of choices open to him, and thinking those through helps us better understand the reasons for the policy he undertook and the reason why. 
      No government interference
      Let's start with the simplest and easiest option that Pharoah's government could have pursued once they knew that there would be seven years of plenty followed by seven years of famine (as predicted by the Pharoah's dream which was interpreted by Prophet Yusuf (عليه السلام).) .
      Pharoah could have left the entire issue to the 'market'. During the years of plenty, the price of food would have fallen and people would have enjoyed a higher standard of living. For example, the lower grain prices could have led to people rearing more cattle and their diets would have improved with more meat.
      However, during the years of famine, grain prices would have risen and those people who had accumulated assets in the years of plenty would be able to pay the higher prices in the famine years. Those who had not had such assets would have starved.
      This assumes a fairly high level of self-discipline on the part of the population, but as Milton Friedman would say, the people would have been 'free to choose'. This is not a hypothetical option. The British lack of action to the Irish potato famine has been attributed to the British government's ideological adherence to a laissez-faire approach to macro-economics:
      https://kenanfellows.org/kfp-cp-sites/cp01/cp01/sites/kfp-cp-sites.localhost.com.cp01/files/LP3_BBC Irish Famine Article for Lab.pdf
       
      The Bengal famine is another one where government policy was different to the one Prophet Yusuf ((عليه السلام).) prescribed to Pharoah. In this instance, it was lack of government restriction over the action of privateers:
      https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/29/winston-churchill-policies-contributed-to-1943-bengal-famine-study
       
      Going back still further, the Great Bengal Famine of 1770 has been directly attributed to British government laissez-faire economic policy.
      https://worldfinancialreview.com/the-political-economy-of-famines-during-the-british-rule-in-india-a-critical-analysis/
       
      Light interference - provision of information
      A common policy option nowadays, where people do not want direct government intervention is to recommend improving the provision of information to the population who will then be better able to make the correct decisions for themselves. The government could have mounted an information campaign during the years of plenty and told people to hoard food themselves, hoarding when there is no shortage is allowed in Islam.
      However such attempts to influence awareness about the famine to come and changing peoples' attitudes so that they saved more than they were used to, would likely have run against increased social pressures on people to do the opposite. For example typically in societies as wealth increases there is social pressure to spend more, in this case, for example, have more lavish weddings.
      Also providing information would have been a practical benefit for the better off e.g. those with storage capacity, but not so good for the poor (who would not have room to store grain, for example).
      The government (using a bit more intervention) could have given tax breaks to people who owned granaries, to help the poor who needed such facilities. Again this solution would be to focus on market-based interventions and simply alter the working of the market using incentives. Current economic theory holds that people discount future risks very heavily i.e. they don't perceive them as much of a threat as they should. So, for example, just telling people they should save for a pension does not work. 
      So we can likely predict that the solutions described above would not have worked had they tried them.
      Heavy interference
      This is what they actually did.
      In times of plenty, Pharoah's government did not let prices fall as would have happened under free market conditions. They kept prices higher than they otherwise would have been because the government intervened and took excess stocks of grain out of circulation.
      All people (rich and poor alike) had no option but to pay the usual higher prices - effectively, the government was taxing everyone, but this was not seen as a loss by anyone because the prices were no higher than usual.
      The government stored the grain centrally and then they decided to release the grain according to their own policies.
      Assumptions made by Prophet Yusuf's government
      If you leave people to their own devices they may not make the best decisions (whether they are rich or poor), this could be due to: People do not have the resources to cater for future shocks (mainly the poor) People do not have the discipline to address future shocks (applies to both the rich and the poor) The government can make better decisions than individuals acting in their own self-interest because: The government can have access to more and better information than individuals do The government may not be as susceptible to a lack of self-discipline  
      Conclusion
      Of all the policy options open to Prophet Yusuf (عليه السلام) he advised Pharoah to pursue the most interventionist one. Some people may be tempted to call this socialist or communist, but I think those terms carry a lot of excess baggage, so I won't bring them into the discussion.
      What I think can be safely inferred from his choice of policy is a fundamental principle that could inform economic policy in any Islamic state.
      Facing an external shock to the Egyptian economy, he went for the option that would cause the least pain to the worst off in society. Other policy options would have caused more pain for the poorest but somewhat less for the better off.
       
       

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